identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
560F8786B7252857089BFDFF38F3FACE.text	560F8786B7252857089BFDFF38F3FACE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebidae Bonaparte 1831	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Family  CEBIDAE (SQUIRREL MONKEYS AND CAPUCHINS) </p>
            <p>• Small to medium-sized monkeys with hindlimbs longer than forelimbs, head oval in squirrel monkeys and rounded in capuchins, relatively large brain, large ears, and long tail that is semi-prehensile in capuchins.</p>
            <p>ø</p>
            <p>• 60-110cm.</p>
            <p>• Neotropical Region.</p>
            <p>• Moist tropical and subtropical, lowland and sub-montane, and dry deciduous and semi-deciduous, forests, scrub and farmland-forest mosaics.</p>
            <p>• 3 genera, 29 species, 30 taxa.</p>
            <p>• 4 species Critically Endangered, 3 species Endangered, 2 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600.</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B7252857089BFDFF38F3FACE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72728540800FE663A75F444.text	560F8786B72728540800FE663A75F444.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saimiri oerstedii (Reinhardt 1872)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>1.</p>
            <p>Central American Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri oerstedia</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri a dos roux / German: Mittelamerika-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla de América Central</p>
            <p>Other common names: Red-backed Squirrel Monkey; Black-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey (oerstedii), Gray-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey (citrinellus)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Chrysothrix oerstedti Reinhardt, 1872 , </p>
            <p> vicinity of David, Chiriqui, Panama.</p>
            <p>S. oerstedui has five pairs of acrocentric chromosomes. Two subspecies recognized.</p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> S. o. oerstediiReinhardt, 1872 — PacificcoastofSECostaRica (PuntarenasProvince) andSWPanama (ChiriquiProvince), fromtheSbankoftheRioGrandedeTérrabatothemouthoftheRioFonsecaandtheArchipelagooftheGolfodeChiriqui; inPanamaelevationsfromsealevelto 500 m.</p>
            <p> S. o. citrinellus Thomas, 1904 — historically along the Pacific coast of W Costa Rica in Puntarenas Province (elevations up to 500 m), the NE limit marked by the Rio Tulin in the N Herradura Mts (9° 40’ N, 84° 35° W) and Dota Mts (9° 37’ N, 84° 35° W), and the S limit by the N bank of the Rio Grande de Térraba (8° 25’ N, 84° 25’ W); its populations are entirely fragmented. </p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-33 cm,tail 33-43 cm; weight 750-950 g (males) and 600-800 g (females). Female Central American Squirrel Monkeys tend to be c.16% smaller than males. The crown is dark, with tufted ears. White arches above the eyes are of the “Gothic” type. The back and sides of the trunk are largely bright orange or reddish orange. In the “Black-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey” (S. o. oerstedir), crowns of males and females are black, and outersides of legs are orange like arms. In the “Gray-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey” (S. o. citrinellus), crowns of males are agouti and are black in females. Males have no sideburns, and their preauricular patch is agouti or buffy, like their cheeks. Females have dark sideburns separating the white face patch from the white fur of the ear. Outersides of legs are buffy or grayish-agouti.</p>
            <p> Habitat. Lowland evergreen forest, with a preference for middle and lower canopies of secondary forest. Central American Squirrel Monkeys enter tall mature forest and late successional forest at times of food scarcity (late wet season). In Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica, where the Central American Squirrel Monkey has been studied by S. Boinski and her students and colleagues, it prefers forest with a heavy herbaceous ground cover of  Musa sapientum (  Musaceae ),  Heliconia (Heliconiaceae) , and  Piper (Piperaceae) ; a shrubby understory; and early pioneer trees that sometimes  form dense stands, such as  Cecropia obtusifolia (  Urticaceae ),  Posoqueria latifolia (  Rubiaceae ),  Vitex cooperi (  Verbenaceae ), and  Psidium guajava (  Myrtaceae ). In more advanced stages of succession, abundant trees include  Ficus (Moraceae) ,  Inga (Fabaceae) ,  Apeiba membranacea (  Tiliaceae ),  Spondias mombin (  Anacardiaceae ), and  Quararibea asterolepis (  Malvaceae ). Forests of the Pacific coasts of Costa Rica and Panama receive heavy annual rainfall, averaging 4970 mm. Some years are very wet, others drier, and there are marked seasons—Ilate wet season, dry season, early wet season, and mid-wet season— when food availability clearly differs. Fewer insects are available during the midand late periods of the wet season (torrential rains and little fresh foliage) compared with the dry season and early wet season. Fruits and flowers are least abundant in the late wet season and most abundant in dry and early wet seasons. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of the Central American Squirrel Monkey includes fruits, nectar, and animal prey, including larval, pupal, and adult insects, bird eggs and nestlings, anole lizards, tree frogs, and bats. Squirrel monkeys are foliage gleaners, animal prey dominates their diets. Most prey is found in dead or living furled leaves (spiders and grasshoppers) or is effectively sessile (caterpillars, pupae, and bird eggs). The most important families providing fruits include  Melastomataceae ,  Rubiaceae ,  Musaceae ,  Vitaceae , and  Piperaceae . Fruits are generally small and are available piecemeal, ripening gradually over prolonged periods. Most food items are small, dispersed, and unpredictable in their location. In Boinski’s study, less than 3% ofall feeding was dedicated to eating fruits or flowers in synchronized bouts in large tree crowns. In times of food scarcity, Central American Squirrel Monkeys increase their foraging time, so the amount of time that they spend feeding on arthropods varies little during the year. Fruit and nectar tend to be eaten more than expected based on availability and when insect abundance is low. Tent-making bats are an unusual food item of the Central American Squirrel Monkey. They recognize the “tents” made by certain phyllostomid bats up to 20 m away. These bats bite bases of lateral nerves of large leaves of species of  Marantaceae ,  Araceae ,  Musaceae ,  Cyclanthaceae , and  Heliconiaceae , causing leaves to collapse and form a tent around the mid rib. One to 50 bats may be found in these refuges, depending on the species. Three tent-making bats occur in Corcovado National Park: Thomas's Fruit-eating Bat (Artibeus watsoni), the Common Tent-making Bat (Uroderma bilobatum), and the Southern Little Yellow-eared Bat (Vampyressa pusilla). These bats are sensitive to vibrations of the foliage around them and cannot be stalked, so squirrel monkeys leap at the tents. Often tents are empty because these bats make and variably use a series of tents scattered through the forest. When a 4year-old male Central American Squirrel Monkey captured a juvenile fruit-eating bat, it knocked the bat to the ground and then seized and killed it with seven bites to the head. The male took it up to a branch and ate it rapidly (1 minute and 40 seconds). Sometimes squirrel monkeys find spherical nests of paper wasps (Polybia) in the bat tents. They leap repeatedly at the tents to knock the wasp nest to the ground. After each leap, they fall to the ground and roll away several meters to avoid being stung. When the wasp nest falls and breaks, the squirrel monkeys grab a piece of it and eat the larvae. Female Central American Squirrel Monkeys are rapid and avid eaters and rest less frequently than males. Males spend less time feeding and more time in sexual interactions and investigations and vigilance for predators. </p>
            <p>Breeding. In Corcovado National Park, the mating season of the Central American Squirrel Monkey occurs in the mid-wet season from August to early October. Males are sexually mature at 2-5-3-5 years old. In June, about two months prior to the mating season, males begin to increase in bodysize, associated with high levels of thyroid hormones, steroids, and testosterone. Males may increase their weight by as much as 20%, and testicular volume and spermatogenic activity also increase. Older males become larger than younger males. During the mating season, up to 16 males (including some that are sexually immature) chase and mob females to smell their genitalia to assess their sexual receptivity. If not receptive, a female rejects males’ advances. Receptive females engage in mutual genital sniffing and follow and solicit copulations from the largest resident male. Evidence indicates that a female restricts her mating to just one male through an ovulatory cycle, which suggests that sperm competition does not occur. Sperm forms a copulatory plug that lasts several hours. Sometimes the largest male apparently hides (after having mated several times already that day) or is involved with another female, and another receptive female ends up mating with another resident male. The largest male copulates most and achieves an almost total monopoly of fully adult females. His supremacy as the largest male of the group only lasts one or two mating seasons. Sometimes a band of males from a neighboring group briefly infiltrates the group, and some of them copulate with females during the melee. Based on swelling of vaginal labia and the switch from rejection to solicitation, the period of sexual receptivity (periovulatory) is c.6-8 days. After gestation of 152-168 days, a female gives birth to a single young in the dry season (February-April) when food availability is increasing. Births are tightly synchronized, with the large majority occurring in the same week within each group (groups may synchronize in different weeks). Births of Central American Squirrel Monkeys are believed to be timed so that infants are weaned during the wet season when fruit is most abundant. Tight synchrony of birthsis also associated with cooperative vigilance for aerial predators by all females. Vigilance increases significantly when groups have neonates and numbers of raptors accompanying monkeys increase at this time. Chestnut-mandibled toucans (Ramphastos ambiguus swainsonii), ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and collared forest-falcons (Micrastur semitorquatus) have been seen to take neonates and infants. Allocare (females other than the mother carrying the young) is uncommon, Interbirth intervals are one year. Individuals have lived more than twelve years in captivity.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. In her studies in Corcovado National Park, Boinski found that travel time of Central American Squirrel Monkeys was small and tended to occur in early morning between 05:00 h and 06:30 h. Their day is dominated entirely by foraging. Groups move gradually through the lower canopy and understory, foraging almost constantly for animal prey and occasionally eating fruits. Foraging tends to decrease as the morning progresses (09:00-12:30 h), with an increasing proportion of the group resting from 11:00 h to 14:30 h. Stationary resting peaks at around midday. Their foraging is almost constant through midto late afternoon until ¢.18:00 h when they settle down to sleep. For two years, Boinski found that the study group used only two sleeping locations, and during more than one of those years, they usedjust three trees. Sleeping sites are trees with crowns nearly isolated from the surrounding canopy, evidently limiting access by predators to one or very few routes. It is possible that the few appropriate sleeping trees may be a limiting factor in home range size and even group size. In all seasons, little time is spent purely in travel (less than 3%), but Boinski found that time spent foraging changed according to food availability. In the late wet season, a time of food scarcity, an individual (aged 18 months or older) spent an average of 64% of its time searching for or eating food. At other times when food was more abundant, time spent foraging dropped to 43-47%. Boinski distinguished group activity categories as “travel forage,” “stationary forage,” ” «“stationary, rest, and forage,” and “stationary rest.” At times of extreme food scarcity, Central American Squirrel Monkeys may spend up to 95% their day looking for food, as was found by Boinski in Costa Rica and J. D. Baldwin and J. Baldwin in their late wet season study in Panama. Foraging at this time consists almost entirely of travel forage (c.56%) and stationary forage (c.37%). Travel foraging counted for only a little less of their time in the dry season and early and middle wet seasons, but stationary foraging dropped considerably (c.16% or less). When food was more abundant, stationary, rest, and foraging took up 22-28% of the day, and stationary resting up to 10%. Time spent in activities other than foraging varied enormously: lowest during the late wet season (1:8%) and highest during the early wet season (40-5%).</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Central American Squirrel Monkeys live in multimale-multifemale groups of 35-65 individuals. The size of the main study group of Boinski was 38-45 individuals, including ten adult males and 16 adult females. In Panama, mean group size is 18-5 individuals (range of 4-40). Males are philopatric, but females disperse before their first mating season and transfer between groups. Males do not form all-male groups as they do in Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys (S.  boliviensis ). Interactions between individuals in the group are marked by an almost total lack of aggression. Exceptions are in sexual contexts, during weaning, and in some cases warding off over-curious individuals trying to investigate newborn infants. Females interact very little and do not  form coalitions or hierarchies as they do in the Guianan Squirrel Monkey (S.  sciureus ) and the Black-capped Squirrel Monkey. Direct competition for food among Central American Squirrel Monkeys is very rare; competition is avoided indirectly by maintaining distance among group members when foraging. Some degree of aggression occurs when groups of males mob a female, trying to smell her genitalia and mate with her. There is no hierarchy among males that can be perceived during such aggression, avoidance, or competition over food. Males cooperate when mobbing or chasing females. There is, however, a ranking evident during the mating season with regard to size, female choice, and successful copulations. The largest adult males show a consistently high investment in vigilance for predators and in direct interventions of possible or real threats to neonates and other group members. Depending on the season, aerial vigilance by the largest adult males takes up 3-5% of their day, two to four times more than adult females. Most reproductively successful males retrieve neonates and infants and also show aggressive defense against would be predators. The home range size of Boinski’s main study group of 38-45 Central American Squirrel Monkeys was 176 ha. Home ranges of adjacent groups overlapped, but neighboring groups very rarely met. When approaching each other, within 100-150 m, groups tended to veer off in different directions. They used some parts of the home range more than others in different seasons, and there was no evidence of a core area of use. They tended to travel further and quicker when food was scarce (350-400 m/h) and less when it was abundant (100-250 m/h). In the late wet season when food is scarce, the group was more dispersed when traveling and foraging (over 1-6 ha) than it was in the early wet season when food was more abundant (0-9 ha). This probably reflected a greater need to avoid indirect competition when food is harder to come by. The large size of the groups and the small size of squirrel monkeys make them prey to numerous raptors, mammals, and snakes, including Virginia Opposums (Didelphis virginiana), Central American Spider Monkeys (At eles geoffroyi), Panamanian White-faced Capuchins (  Cebus imitator ), White-nosed Coatis (Nasua narica), Tayras (Eira barbara), collared forest falcons (Micrastur semitorquatus), Guiana crested eagles (Morphnus guianensis), and snakes such as boa constrictors (Boa constrictor) and fer-de-lance (Bothrops asper). Other predators in Costa Rica and Panama include toucans, ornate hawk-eagles (Spizaetus ornatus), gray hawks (Buteo nitidus), roadside hawks (B. magnirostris), white hawks (Leucopternis albicollis), and red-throated caracaras (Daptrius americanus). Squirrel monkeys act as “beaters” by flushing prey for double-toothed kites (Harpagus bidentatus), tawny-winged woodcreepers (Dendrocincla anabatina), and gray-headed tanagers (Eucometis pencillata). These species regularly accompany groups of squirrel monkeys throughout the year and especially during the late wet season when animal prey is most scarce. Numerous other species occasionally follow groups of squirrel monkeys for this reason. Double-toothed kites catch tent making bats when they are flushed by squirrel monkeys. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List, with both subspecies  oerstedii and citrinellus classified as Endangered. The main reason for the considerable decline in numbers of the Central American Squirrel Monkey has been loss of habitat due to deforestation and tourist development; their natural shyness makes them easily stressed by tourists. Individuals rarely descend to the ground: therefore, any break in the forest (such as for roads or telephone and electric power lines) can severely fragment a group’s habitat. It is also threatened by widespread spraying of insecticides. Only a few fragmented populations remain. In 1997-1998, Boinski estimated less than 4000 Central American Squirrel Monkeys in Costa Rica, including c.1000 individuals of the Gray-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey. Boinski indicated that they were probably extinct in Panama, but recent surveys found a fragmented population of ¢.4775 Black-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkeys in Chiriqui Province, spread over 2613 km? in far western Panama. Although Corcovado National Park is 41,788 ha, it is believed to have no more than ¢.400 squirrel monkeys because they are restricted to areas that contain disturbed and secondary forest, which only cover ¢.20 km?® of the park. The Black-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey also occurs in Golfito Wildlife Refuge (2830 ha). The Gray-crowned Central American Squirrel Monkey occurs in Manuel Antonio National Park (682 ha). </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Arauz (1993), Baldwin (1971), Baldwin &amp; Baldwin (1972, 1976a, 1981), Boinski (1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1987d, 1988, 1994, 1999a, 1999b), Boinski &amp; Cropp (1999), Boinski &amp; Mitchell (1994), Boinski &amp; Scott (1988), Boinski &amp; Sirot (1997), Boinski &amp; Timm (1985), Boinski et al. (1998), Janzen (1983), Matamoros &amp; Seal (2001), Matamoros et al. (1996), Mitchell, C.L. et al. (1991), Rodriguez-Vargas (2003), Sierra et al. (2003), Wong (1990).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72728540800FE663A75F444	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B726285308F2F3D13BA5F844.text	560F8786B726285308F2F3D13BA5F844.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saimiri cassiquiarensis (Lesson 1840)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>2.</p>
            <p>Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri cassiquiarensis</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri de Humboldt / German: Humboldt-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla de Humboldt</p>
            <p>Other common names: Colombian Squirrel Monkey (albigena)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia sciurea cassiquiarensis Lesson, 1840 , </p>
            <p> Rio (Cano) Cassiquiare, Amazonas, Venezuela.</p>
            <p> Previously considered a subspecies of S.  sciureus . Following a molecular genetic study published in 2009, X. Carretero-Pinzéon concluded that S.  cassiquiarensis albigena should be considered a distinct species. Two subspecies recognized here. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> S. c. cassiquiarensisLesson, 1840 — ColombianAmazon (betweenriosVichadaandApaporisWtotheupperriosGuaviareandApaporisintheAndes), SVenezuela (upperOrinoco-Cassiquiare), andtheBrazilianAmazonNoftheRioSolimoes (WoftheRioNegroandRioDeminiandNoftheRioJapura).</p>
            <p> S. c. albigenavon Pusch, 1942 — C Colombia, in a small area between the E slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Eastern Llanos, from Boyaca and Arauca departments S to the upper Rio Guaviare in Meta, and the upper Rio Magdalena in Huila departments to elevations of 1500 m; the E limits of the distribution in the departments of Arauca and Casanare are unknown. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-37 cm (males) and 28-34 cm (females), tail 38-45 cm (males) and 36-43 cm (females); weight 650-1125 g (males) and 550-1200 g (females). The nominate subspecies of Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkeyis very similar in its coloration and size to the Guianan Squirrel Monkey (S.  sciureus ) but has a more intense tawny (golden-yellow) basal section to hairs on the crown (the Guianan Squirrel Monkey is more gray-crowned). Nominate female Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkeys have two black lines above their ears (temporal band) that extend back to the nape and forward in front of the ears (preauricular patch or sideburns). Males lack temporal bands and do not have a tuft of black hairs in front oftheir ears. There is a brighter reddishtan coloring on the back, and a weakly contrasting, light nuchal collar. Forearms are more orangey in the nominate subspecies of Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkey (gray in the Guianan Squirrel Monkey). The “Colombian Squirrel Monkey” (S. ¢. albigena) is also similar to the nominate subspecies of the Guianan Squirrel Monkey, but with mainly grayish-agouti (grizzled gray) forearms and hands, and its back is more orange-toned. The crown and nape are grayish or buffy-agouti. The white facemask of the male Colombian Squirrel Monkey extends to the ears (no sideburns), but sometimes there is a pale agouti patch in front of the ears, which are tufted. Female Colombian Squirrel Monkeys have thin dark sideburns. </p>
            <p> Habitat. The nominate subspecies of Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkey occurs in the tall humid forests of the Guiana Shield in the basins of the Rio Negro, north of the Rio Japura in Brazil to the north in the Federal Territory of Amazonas in Venezuela and west into Colombia, north of the Apaporis (including part of Colombia’s Orinoco Region, just north of the lower and middle Rio Guayabero) to the Chiribiquete Plateau. In these areas, forest canopies reach 25-30 m and are on poorsoils (oligotrophic, hydromorphic laterite, and podzols, and quartz sands). Tall terra firma forests are intermixed with islands of white sand scrub and savanna (“campina”) and small-leaved and sclerophytic white sand forest (“campinarana” or caatinga forest), along with swamp forests (“chavascal”),  Mauritia palm swamps, and seasonally inundated black-water forests (igapo). The Chiribiquete Plateau is characterized by sclerophytic dwarf scrub. The Colombian Squirrel Monkey occurs in the eastern Andean region of Colombia in low-canopy gallery forests of the Eastern Llanos, sclerophyllous hillside forest of the foothills of the Cordillera Oriental of the Andes, and  Mauritia palm swamp forest. </p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. Colombian Squirrel Monkeys eat principally fruits and insects. They have been reported catching large caterpillars, orthopterans, and cicadas. Near San Martin in the Llanos where they have been studied, there are distinct seasons: a dry season in December—March and a wet season in April-November. Fruits are abundant only in the late dry season and early wet season (January-June), and insects are scarcer in the mid-dry season (February-March).</p>
            <p> Breeding. In the group of Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkeys studied by R. Thorington, Jr. four infants were born during 31 days in February—early March, and a fifth female gave birth in the beginning of April at the end of the dry season and early wet season. When pregnant and nursing, females were less active and spent more time in association with a group of Large-headed Capuchins (  Sapajus macrocephalus ). They foraged more slowly and rested more than other group members. Thorington did not observe allocare by other females, butjuveniles were notably interested in infants and traveled with pregnant females. At Sierra de la Macarena National Natural Park, Colombia, births occurred in April-June. </p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Colombian Squirrel Monkeys are most active in the early to midmorning and the middle to late afternoon. At midday, they rest for 1-2 hours. In the cool early morning, they stop and rest in a huddled position, but toward the hotter middle of the day, they stretch out and sprawl.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Colombian Squirrel Monkeys in Sierra de la Macarena National Natural Park were 25-35 individuals. Thorington carried out a short study of the Colombian Squirrel Monkey in 1965 in a gallery forest in the Eastern Llanos, east of San Martin in the Meta Department. He observed a group of 18-22 individuals that included three adult males,five adult females, and ten 1-3year-oldjuveniles. During the day, the group split into subgroups, sometimes adult males separated from females andjuveniles. Subgroups reunited at midday and also at the end of the day to sleep together. Male Colombian Squirrel Monkeys disperse from their natal groups and form all-male groups. Lone males have been observed following spider monkeys (  Ateles ) in Sierra de la Macarena. At San Martin, Colombian Squirrel Monkeys occasionally associate with Large-headed Capuchins, and more often in August—January when insect abundance is higher than at other times. There was no effect of fruit abundance on these associations, but they were most frequent when both fruit and prey were most abundant. It is believed that associations between the two species are relatively infrequent compared with other species of squirrel monkeys because of the overall scarcity of, and competition for, fruit. For the nominate subspecies, average group sizes were ten (n = 3) at the clear-water creek, Cano Pintadillo, and 18 (n = 10) at Caparu on the northern margin of Lago Taraira—both sites just north of the lower black-water Rio Apaporis in Colombia. Densities of squirrel monkeys at these two sites, reported by E. Palacios and C. Peres in 2005, were very low,a finding attributed to the very heavy rainfall and nutrient poor soils of the area: 0-5 groups/km?or 5-4 ind/km? at Cano Pintadillo and 0-2 groups/km? or 3-1 ind/km* at Caparu. Long-term primate studies have been conducted at Caparu, and censuses in 1984-1986 also confirmed low densities of squirrel monkeys at 8-8 ind/km? in terra firma and 7-1 ind/km? in igapo, with groupsizes of ¢.15 individuals. Somewhat higher densities of 12-7 ind/km? were recorded for Colombian Squirrel Monkeys in Tinigua National Natural Park, Colombia. T. Defler recorded Humboldt’s Squirrel Monkeys infrequently, and they were usually associated with Large-headed Capuchins and Humboldt’s Woolly Monkeys (  Lagothrix lagothricha), with both in the terra firma forest but just with the woolly monkeys in the igapo. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The nominate subspecies is classified as Least Concern (as S.  sciureus cassiquiarensis ) and the Colombian Squirrel Monkey as Near Threatened (as S. s. albigena) on The IUCN Red List. The geographic distribution of the Colombian Squirrel Monkey is ¢.100,000 km? but it has been reduced to ¢.60,000 km* by the spread of oil palm plantations. Fragmentation of the gallery forests and forest patches where they occur in the Llanos has caused local extinctions, particularly over large areas in the vicinity of large towns, such as Gigante and Garzon in the northern part of their distribution. Besides oil palm plantations, major causes of forest loss and fragmentation are cattle ranching, subsistence farming, petroleum extraction and exploration, and illegal crops such as coca. Squirrel monkeys have large home ranges, and they are lost from even quite large forest fragments when they are completely isolated. Fence rows (live and wire fences, hedgerows, and trees) play a very important role as corridors between forest fragments, particularly at times of food scarcity. Populations of Colombian Squirrel Monkeys in the upper Magdalena Valley of the Huila Department are particularly threatened by habitat loss. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the Colombian Squirrel Monkey suffered from capture for sale as pets and export for biomedical research. In Colombia, a small population has been found in Cueva de los Guacharos National Natural Park, and they also occur in Tinigua and Sierra de la Macarena national natural parks in their south-western distribution. It is believed that their numbers and geographic distribution are diminishing to the extent that they should be reclassified as Vulnerable or even Endangered. The nominate subspecies occurs in Pico da Neblina and Jau national parks, Juami-Japura Ecological Reserve, and Amana State Sustainable Development Reserve in Brazil; Yaigojé Apaporis and Serrania de Chiribiquete national natural parks and Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in Colombia; and Parima Tapirapeco, Yapacana, Duida-Marahuaca, and Serrania de la Neblina national parks in Venezuela. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Baldwin &amp; Baldwin (1971), Carretero-Pinzén, Defler &amp; Ruiz-Garcia (2008, 2010), Carretero-Pinzén, Ruiz-Garcia &amp; Defler (2009), Defler (2003b, 2004), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949, 1984), Klein &amp; Klein (1976), Lavergne et al. (2009), Palacios &amp; Peres (2005), Thorington (1968b, 1985).</p>
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560F8786B72128530803F7D439B1FAA9.text	560F8786B72128530803F7D439B1FAA9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saimiri macrodon Elliot 1907	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>3.</p>
            <p>Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri macrodon</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri d’'Equateur / German: Ecuador-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla ecuatoriano</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Saimiri macrodon Elliot, 1907 , </p>
            <p> Rio Copataza, upper Rio Pastaza, Pastaza, Ecuador. </p>
            <p> R. Thorington, Jr. considered S.  macrodon a junior synonym of S.  sciureus . In a paper published in 1976, J. Hernandez-Camacho and R. Cooper recognized S.  sciureus caquetensis, named by J. A. Allen in 1916, from the Rio Caqueta. It was considered to be a junior synonym of S.  sciureus macrodon by P. Hershkovitz and C. P. Groves. S.  macrodon 1s chromosomally distinct, with six pairs of acrocentric chromosomes. S.  macrodon intergrades with S.  boliviensis peruviensis in the basins of the rios Tapiche and Blanco, and natural hybrids of S.  macrodon x S. b. peruviensis have been recorded from Pucallpa, Peru, and the Rio Ucayali, in the Tapiche Basin. Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. W Brazilian Amazon (W from the rios Japura and Jurua), extending W in S Colombia (up to the Rio Apaporis), to E Ecuador (W to the Andes), and to N &amp; E Peru, S to the Rio Abujao, (N of the Rio Maranon as far as the mouth of the Rio Huallaga where it also extends S of the Maranon along the left (W) bank of the Rio Huallaga to about 9° S, and E of the Rio Ucayali).</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head—body 25-32 cm, tail 34—44 cm; weight 835-1380 g (males) and 590-1150 g (females). The Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkey is very similar to the Guianan Squirrel Monkey (S.  sciureus ), but the back is darker. The general color including the crown and dorsal surface of the tail is a grayish olivaceous, washed with orange. Flanks and inside of the legs and arms and ventral surface of the tail are paler. Feet and hands are deep yellowy orange. Ventral surfaces are pale yellowish white. The muzzle is black with white around the eyes and on the cheeks and throat extending to the upper chest. Ears are white, slightly furred (not tufted), and pointed. The tail pencil is black on the dorsal surface. White arches above the eyes are of the “Gothic arch” type. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Humid tropical and subtropical forest at 200-1200 m above sea level. At least in Ecuador, they are more common at elevations of 500 m or less. Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkeys prefer dense vegetation and lianas of seasonally inundated forests, and they are able to adapt to secondary and disturbed forest. They are reported to be scarce or absent from terra firma lowland and hillside forest far from rivers of lakes.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but its diet is likely composed of small animals and fruits, including infructescences of  Cecropia (Urticaceae) , figs (  Ficus ,  Moraceae ),  Euterpe palms (  Arecaceae ), and  Campomanesia (Myrtaceae) . </p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. One group of Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkeys counted at the Quebradon Ayo, a small clear-water tributary of the Rio Caqueta in Colombia, had 18 individuals. The area has nutrient poor soils, low productivity, and low primate densities. Surveys of Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkeys there indicated densities of 0-6 groups/km* and 11-3 ind/km?®. They have been recorded in groups of 40-50 individuals and, like other squirrel monkeys, associate with groups of capuchins (  Sapajus and  Cebus ). </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as S.  sciureus macrodon ). The Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkey is widespread and generally common throughoutits distribution where there is suitable habitat. In some areas in Peru, it raids cornfields and banana plantations and is considered a pest. It occurs in Amacayacu, Cahuinari, and La Paya national natural parks in Colombia; Yasuni National Park, Cayambe-Coca, and Cofan-Bermejo ecological reserves, and Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in Ecuador; and ACR Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo in Peru. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Allen (1916), Carretero-Pinzén et al. (2009), Defler (2003b), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1984), Lavergne et al. (2009), Schneider, Harada et al. (1993), Silva et al. (1992), Tirira (2007).</p>
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560F8786B72128520D0AFAC83EC6FE6B.text	560F8786B72128520D0AFAC83EC6FE6B.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saimiri ustus (I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1843)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>4.</p>
            <p>Golden-backed Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri ustus</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri a dos brilé / German: Nacktohr-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla orejudo</p>
            <p>Other common names: Bare-eared Squirrel Monkey, Geoffroy's Squirrel Monkey, Short-tailed Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Saimiris wustus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1843 , </p>
            <p> Brazil, restricted by A. Cabrera in 1958 to the Rio Madeira and restricted further by P. Hershkovitz in 1984 to Humaita, right bank of the Rio Madeira.</p>
            <p> Marginally sympatric with S.  sciureus in the lower Rio Madeira Basin. S. wustus hybridizes with S.  sciureus , and possibly with S.  boliviensis . S.  ustus has five pairs of acrocentric chromosomes and although Hershkovitz aligned this species with the “Gothic arch” squirrel monkeys (S.  sciureus ), cytogenetically it is very similar to the “Roman arch” S.  boliviensis . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. Brazilian Amazon S of the Rio Solimoes-Amazonas in the states of Amazonas, Para, Mato Grosso, and Rondonia, from the Rio Tefé E to the Rio Xingu-Iriri, and S to the upper Rio Guaporé and the headwaters of the Rio Juruena.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-35 cm (males) and 23-42 cm (females), tail 40-45 cm (males) and 31-42 cm (females); weight 710-1200 g (males) and 620-880 g (females). The Golden-backed Squirrel Monkey is similar to the Guianan Squirrel Monkey (S.  sciureus ), but it is generally larger, with a shorter tail. The back is gold colored, the crown is agouti (intermixed or bordered with black in females), outer sides of thighs are grayish-agouti, and forearms, hands, and feet are orange or yellowish. The face is naked, the ears are only moderately hairy, without tufts, and arches above the eyes are of the Gothic arch type. There is some slight geographic variation in appearance; southerly Golden-backed Squirrel Monkeys have bright orange forearms, whereas over most of their distribution, this color does not extend above the wrists. Those from the lower Rio Tapajos have a yellowish crown and forearms. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Lowland evergreen rainforest, including terra firma forest, seasonally inundated forest, and swamp forest. Surveys at Urucu, in the Purus Basin, by C. Peres mainly recorded Golden-backed Squirrel Monkeys in the 100-200m wide, black-water inundated forest (igapo) along river and creek-side forests. When fruit is scarce in the dry season, they become widely vagrant in the terra firma forest.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but as is typical of all squirrel monkeys, the diet is undoubtedly composed of fruit and small animal prey, particularly orthopterans and lepidopteran caterpillars and pupae.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. The Golden-backed Squirrel Monkey is diurnal and arboreal. Although it has not been studied in the wild, a large part ofits day likely involves moving and foraging in the lower canopy and understory of the forest, searching foliage for small animal prey.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is little specific information available for this species, but at Urucu, Peres counted two groups, one of 38 individuals and the other of 76 individuals. Densities were estimated at 0-2 groups/km? and 10-2 ind/km?.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. Very little is known about the Golden-backed Squirrel Monkey in the wild, but its distribution coincides with the so-called arc of deforestation along the agricultural frontier in the south of the states of Para, Mato Grosso and Rondonia, where forests have been clear-cut during the last 20 years for colonization, timber, cattle ranching, and industrial agriculture (notably soy beans). In Brazil, it probably occurs in Amazonia, Juruena, and Pacaas Novos national parks; Abufari, Guaporé and Jaru biological reserves; and Cunia, Iqué, and Samuel ecological stations.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Ayres (1985), Cabrera (1957), Carretero-Pinzén et al. (2009), Groves (2001), Hershkovitz (1984), Peres (1993a, 1994b).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72128520D0AFAC83EC6FE6B	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B720285208F0FD8D3965F641.text	560F8786B720285208F0FD8D3965F641.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Saimiri sciureus (Linnaeus 1758)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>5.</p>
            <p>Guianan Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri sciureus</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri écureuil / German: Guayana-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla comun</p>
            <p>Other common names: Common Squirrel Monkey; Collins's Squirrel Monkey (collinsi)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia sciurea Linnaeus, 1758 , </p>
            <p> “India.” Restricted by Tate in 1939 to Guyana, Kartabo.</p>
            <p> S.  sciureus has seven pairs of acrocentric chromosomes. S. s. collinsi was recognized by A. Cabrera in his catalogue of primates in 1958 and W. C. O. Hill in his review of the  Cebidae in 1960. Modern revisions of squirrel monkey taxonomy by P. Hershkovitz, R. Thorington, Jr. in 1985, and C. P. Groves in 2001, however, listed it as a junior synonym of the nominate subspecies  sciureus . Independent molecular genetic studies by A. Lavergne and coworkers and X. Carretero-Pinzon and coworkers (both in 2009) found collinsi to be distinct. There is some hybridization with S.  ustus in the maze of channels and flooded forests between the rios Madeira and Purus, just south of the Amazon River. Two subspecies recognized. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> S. s. sciureusLinnaeus, 1758 — GuianasandNBrazil, NoftheAmazonRiverfromtheriosNegroandDemini (AmazonasState), Etotherivermouth, andSoftheAmazonRiverbetweentheRioXingu-Iriri (ParaState) EtotheRioPindaré (MaranhaoState), extendingStoc. 6 ° SalongtheupperreachesoftheRioXingu.</p>
            <p> S. s. collins: Osgood, 1916 — N Brazil, Marajo I in the estuary of the Amazon River (Para State), but further studies are needed to identify the extent of its occurrence, which may well be much larger; the identity of the squirrel monkeys on other islands in the Amazon estuary (Gurupa, Caviana, and Mexiana) has yet to be ascertained. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 25-37 cm (males) and 25-34 cm (females), tail 36— 40 cm (males) and 36-47 cm (females); weight 550-1400 g (males) and 550-1200 g (females). The adult male type specimen of “Collins’s Squirrel Monkey” (S. s. collinsi): head-body 24-9 cm and tail 41-1 cm. The Guianan Squirrel Monkey is generally grayish or greenish to reddish-agouti, with an agouti-colored crown. White arches over the eyes are high and pointed in the “Gothic arch”style, and there are white ear tufts. The face is pink, with black around the muzzle. The nominate subspecies  sciureus is buffy-agouti with yellowish-orange forearms, hands, and feet, and a white underside. The crown is gray-agouti in the male and intermixed or bordered with black in the female. Individuals south of the Amazon River are slightly yellower on the back and have a more yellowish suffusion on the crown. There is no defined nuchal band. Collins’s Squirrel Monkey is similar to the nominate subspecies, but its hands and feet are a dark rich tawny compared with the golden yellow or orange of the nominate subspecies. White around the ears is not (or only narrowly) continuous with white around the eyes. The back is paler than in the nominate subspecies, and the head, shoulders, and forepart of the back are grayish. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Mature forest and early and late successional stages of secondary lowland rainforest, seasonally inundated forest, river edge and gallery forest, and mangrove and swamp forest.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. A. Stone studied the feeding ecology of two groups of Guianan Squirrel Monkeys at Ananim, east of Belém, in the Para State, Brazil. Their diets were principally insects, fruit, flowers, nectar, seeds, gums, spiders,lizards, and bird eggs. Insects accounted for 79-82% oftheir feeding and foraging times during the year. Insects contributed more to the diet in the dry season: 72-74% of the time spent feeding and foraging in the dry season compared to 50-51% in the wet season. In one year, squirrel monkeys ate fruits from 68 species and 37 families. The fleshy, yellow mesocarp of fruits of the palm Maximiliana (=  Attalea ) maripa (  Arecaceae ) was preferred, comprising an average of 28% of their feeding time and ranking first or second in the diet for nine months of the year. These palms grow in clusters, each having one to four bunches of several hundred to over one thousand fruits, which allows an entire group to feed simultaneously. In the wet season, flowers contributed only 1:7% of the plant diet, but they rose to 28-5% of the diet in the dry season when fruits were scarce. The two most important species providing flowers were the liana Memora magnifica (  Bignoniaceae ) and the vine  Passiflora glandulosa (  Passifloraceae ). Nectar was eaten in the dry season, and they also ate gum and small (less than 4 mm) seeds of  Stryphnodendron pulcherrimum (  Fabaceae ), which in one month comprised 39% of the plant feeding records. Of the insect prey recorded, 51% were orthopterans, but caterpillars and Hymenoptera were important in the wet season. In the dry season, Guianan Squirrel Monkeys frequently foraged in leaflitter (32% of insect foraging records) for large orthopterans and hemipterans, but only rarely in the wet season (2% of records). Another study of their diet was carried out by E. Lima and S. Ferrari in Gunma Ecological Park, also in the south of Para. The study monitored the diet of a group of Guianan Squirrel Monkeys in lowland terra firma forest through the dry season (August-November) to the onset of the wet season (December—January). In contrast to the findings of Stone, the diet changed markedly during the study. Animal prey (mostly orthopterans and lepidopterans) accounted for 80% of the feeding records in August, while plant material (mostly fruit) accounted for 20%. These proportions gradually changed as the dry season progressed, with less animal prey and more fruit until January, in the early wet season, when animal prey comprised 20% of the diet and fruit 80%. Foraging success for animal prey declined progressively through the study, while numbers of trees in fruit gradually increased. Overall, they ate fruit from 21 species, nectar from  Symphonia globulifera (  Clusiaceae ), and inflorescences of  Cecropia (Urticaceae) . Almost one-half of fruits eaten came from species of  Fabaceae and Sapotacae. The Guianan Squirrel Monkey has been seen eating a bat only once, so it evidently does not hunt for them systematically as does the Central American Squirrel Monkey (S.  oerstedii ). </p>
            <p>Breeding. Breeding of the Guianan Squirrel Monkey is seasonal and normally synchronous in the group. Prior to the mating season, adult males become considerably fatter on the upper parts of their bodies, and they are much more vocal and aggressive. The mating season lasts about nine weeks in the early dry season. Unlike the Central American Squirrel Monkey, female Guianan Squirrel Monkeys apparently do not present sexually to males, nor do they follow or call to them. After a gestation of five months, births are highly synchronized among group members (all in less than one week) over two months (January-February) in the early wet season. The single large offspring is cared for by the mother and other adult females (allocare or alloparenting) that carry infants for short periods. The father shows no paternal care. The infant’s tail is slightly prehensile. Infants are weaned by about six months. Females are sexually mature at c.2:5 years and have their first infants about one year later. Males go through a subadult phase before entering true adulthood at 4-5 years old. Interbirth intervals are 1-2 years. Guianan Squirrel Monkeys can live 20 years or more.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. A study of two groups of Guianan Squirrel Monkeys in eastern Brazil found that, on average, 51-53% of their days is spent foraging for, processing, and eating food during the year. In another study, activity budgets were slightly different between seasons. In the dry season, individuals foraged more for insects (c.31% vs. c.25%), spent more time eating (¢.23% vs. ¢.15%), and less time resting (c.17-5% vs. c.27%) and occupied in social behavior (¢.5% vs. ¢.8%) than in the wet season. Time spent traveling (c.22% of the day) was similar between seasons.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. The two groups of Guianan Squirrel Monkeys studied by Stone at Ananim had 44 and 50 individuals. During one year, their home ranges were 110 ha and 123 ha, with little seasonal differences in home range use. Daily movements were more than 2 km, averaging 2347 m during 57 days for one group and 2290 m during 20 days for the other. Groups are multimale—multifemale, with each sex forming dominance hierarchies; males are typically larger and most or all are dominant over females. Male Guianan Squirrel Monkeys  form coalitions . Groups studied in Suriname have frequent agonistic interactions, and commonly over fruits (1-5 interactions/hour). Males in the groups studied in Brazil were much less aggressive. Aggression between femalesis infrequent, and they do not  form coalitions . Females disperse and males are philopatric. Groups of Collins's Squirrel Monkey in gallery forest along the Rio Jutuba in the savanna of the eastern part of the island of Marajo were smaller (average 10 ind/group) than in extensive forest lowland terra firma forest. This is similar to the “Colombian Squirrel Monkey” (S.  cassiquiarensis albigena) in gallery forest of the Eastern Llanos in Colombia, which also has smaller groups, perhaps an adaptation to the occupation of restricted linear habitats. Densities of Collins’s Squirrel Monkey have been estimated at 5-2 groups/km? and 54-2 ind/km?. </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Collins’s Squirrel Monkey is not evaluated separately. The Guianan Squirrel Monkey is widespread and common, although it was extensively exploited in the past by the laboratory-animal and pet trades. It is rarely hunted. It occurs in numerous and many large protected areas within its distribution.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boinski (1999a, 1999b), Boinski &amp; Cropp (1999), Carretero-Pinzén et al. (2009), Fernandes et al. (1995), Groves (2001), Hershkovitz (1984), Hill (1960), Jones et al. (1973), Lavergne et al. (2009), Lima &amp; Ferrari (2003), Peres (1989c), Podolsky (1990), de Souza et al. (1997), Stone (2007), Tate (1939), Thorington (1968b, 1985).</p>
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            <p>6.</p>
            <p>Black-capped Squirrel Monkey</p>
            <p> Saimiri boliviensis</p>
            <p>French: Saimiri de Bolivie / German: Schwarzkappen-Totenkopfaffe / Spanish: Mono ardilla boliviano</p>
            <p>Other common names: Bolivian Squirrel Monkey (boliviensis), Peruvian Squirrel Monkey (peruviensis)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Callithrix boliviensis 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire &amp; de Blainville, 1834,</p>
            <p> Guarayos Mission, Rio San Miguel, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.</p>
            <p> In a review of the taxonomy of the uacaris published in 1987, P. Hershkovitz recognized S. b. jaburuensis and S. b. pluvialis as valid subspecies. They were listed by C. P. Groves in 2001 as synonyms of the nominate subspecies  boliviensis . This species may hybridize with S.  ustus where the two are sympatric. S.  boliviensis is chromosomally distinct, with five pairs of acrocentric chromosomes. Natural hybrids of S. b. peruviensis x S.  macrodon have been recorded from Pucallpa, Peru, and the Rio Ucayali (Tapiche Basin). Two subspecies recognized. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> S. b.  boliviensis 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire &amp; de Blainville, 1834 — upper Brazilian Amazon S of the Rio Solimoes, from between the rios Jurua and Tefé extending S into SE Peru (S of Rio Abujao, Ucayali Department) and N Bolivia W of the Rio Guaporé (Beni, Cochabamba, Pando, and Santa Cruz departments, including the upper Madeira Basin), at elevations of 50-500 m. </p>
            <p>S. b. peruviensis Hershkovitz, 1984 — N &amp; C Peru, S of the Rio Maranon-Amazonas, from the W bank of the Rio Tapiche W to the Rio Huallaga, and S through the departments of San Martin and of Huanuco (to c.10° S), and Ucayali (between the rios Pachitea and Tambo, at least as far as the Rio Abujao); also possibly in Brazil (Amazonas State), at elevations of 90-800 m.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 28-31.5 cm (males) and 26.5-28.5 cm (females), tail 38-43 cm (males) and 39-5—-41 cm (females); weight c.1 kg (males, varies by season) and 700-900 g (females) for the “Bolivian Squirrel Monkey” (S. b.  boliviensis ). Head-body 27.3-32 cm (males) and 26:5-27.7 cm (females), tail 37.4-43.5 cm (males) and 37.7-40.4 cm (females) for the “Peruvian Squirrel Monkey” (S. b. peruviensis). The Black-capped Squirrel Monkey is sexually dichromatic. Males tend to be gray and females blackish, although normally both have a blackish crown and golden-yellow forearms, hands, and feet. There are narrow white lines of fur on each brow of the “Roman arch” type. The tail pencil is black and thin. The principal distinguishing character of the Bolivian Squirrel Monkey is the entirely agouti pelage of the forehead. The crown and preauricular patch are blackish in both sexes. The tail is grayish or buffy-agouti to blackish above, with a black tip. In the Peruvian Squirrel Monkey, the crown and preauricular patch are agouti in males and mainly black or blackish-agouti in females. The tail is grayish to blackish-agouti above, with a black tip. </p>
            <p> Habitat. All types of humid forest in the western Amazon, from river edge and seasonally flooded forests to terra firma forest. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys tend to use terra firma forest only seasonally, depending on fruit abundance and dispersion. Their preferenceis for river edge, lacustrine succession, and flooded forests. Although Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys often feed on fruits in large-canopied, tall trees (especially  Ficus and  Brosimum , both  Moraceae ) in the upper canopy and even emergent vegetation, they travel mainly in the middle canopy and understory, 10-15 m above the ground. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of the Black-capped Squirrel Monkey is largely small animal prey and fruit. Its feeding ecology was studied by J. Terborgh and colleagues at Cocha Cashu in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru. Fruits they eat are generally small (mostly 1 cm or less in diameter or the short axis), succulent, and sweet, including berries and drupes that are often yellow or orange when ripe. The diet includes fruits from more than 150 species in 42 families. In the wet season, various fruits comprise 100% of the plant part of their diet. In the dry season, when fruit production in the forest is generally low, Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys are able to maintain a high a percentage of fruit (91%) in their diet by concentrating on figs; there are 16 species of  Ficus (Moraceae) at Cocha Cashu, 13 of them providing fruits for squirrel monkeys. The three most important species are FE perforata, FE killipii, and FE erythrosticta. In May during the early dry season, for example, Blackcapped Squirrel Monkeys spent 90% oftheir fruit feeding time on figs, which equaled 77% of their time spent feeding overall. In the dry season, they also lick nectar from flowers of  Combretum assimile (  Combretaceae ) and  Quararibea cordata (  Bombacaceae ). Large-canopied figs produce enormous quantities of small fruits, attracting a wide range of birds and mammals for periods of c.10 days. Tall trees (up to 30-40 m) are sparsely distributed through the forest, and Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys,like the sympatric Shock-headed Capuchins (  Cebus cuscinus ) that also depend on figs in the dry season, range widely (450 ha). Because of their heavy use of figs, in which the entire group can feed simultaneously, Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys spend ¢.50% of their feeding time in the canopy or emergent vegetation at heights of 30 m or more. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys at Manu and Central American Squirrel Monkeys (S.  oerstedii ) differ in their use of the small-canopied trees they exploit for fruits. Central American Squirrel Monkeys exploit species that produce fruits in small quantities over long periods. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys at Manu eat a much larger diversity of fruits, which typically produce large crops that ripen over a short period or even simultaneously, in both largeand small-canopied trees. As a result,sizes of feeding parties differ: typically, 3-4 Central American Squirrel Monkeys and 17-18 Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys. As for all squirrel monkeys, Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys are efficient, rapid foliage gleaners; 83% of their foraging time is spent scanning and manipulating leaves of trees and vines for exposed rather than hidden prey. About one-half of all prey they take is immobile or sluggish that they grab from leaves, and c.30% are mobile insects that they snatch, even in mid-air, or pounce on. Orthopterans comprise ¢.33% of their prey, and c.50% are lepidopteran larvae, pupae, and adults. They also eat hymenopteran larva, galls, beetles, snails, frogs, lizards, nestlings, and numerous other small items that are impossible to identify. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys are the most intense and rapid foragers, catching prey at a faster rate than any of the primates at Cocha Cashu. They capture prey at twice the rate of sympatric capuchin species, nearly one item per minute. When insects are scarce, particularly toward the end of the dry season, they increase their search rate and are thus able to maintain capture rates of 53-64 captures/hour during the year. Most of their foraging for animal prey is done while moving slowly through the understory and lower canopy at heights of 5-10 m. </p>
            <p> Breeding. As many as 23 breeding females can occurin a single group of Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys. Females give birth for the first time at c.2-5 years of age. Males reach reproductive maturity at about six years. As in other species of  Saimiri , male Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys become “fatted” prior to the mating season, which lasts about two months. Births occur also during a two-month period, in contrast to the tight synchrony of two weeks in the Central American Squirrel Monkey and less than one week in the Guianan Squirrel Monkey (S.  sciureus ). Females other than the mother care for infants and may suckle them. Interbirth interval is 24 months, double those of Guianan and Central American squirrel monkeys. </p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys spend most of their day traveling through the understory searching for animal prey, finding occasional fruits from relatively small-canopied understory trees (5 m or less in diameter), and making short but frantic excursions up into the canopy to raid the large fruits of fig trees. At these times, the entire group may feed on fruits together. About 11% of the day is spent feeding on fruit or nectar, and another 11% resting. About 43% of theirfruit feeding time is spent in large trees with canopies of 20 m or more.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Black-capped Squirrel Monkey at Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve are 35-65 individuals, and home ranges are 250-500 ha. Home ranges of different groups overlap, and there is no evident territorial behavior. Groups have been seen feeding on fruits in a large fig tree one after the other or even at the same time in neighboring  Brosimum trees. There is, however, competition for food within groups. Food-based disputes are 70 times more frequent in groups of Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys (although still not very frequent) than they are in egalitarian and peaceful groups of the Central American Squirrel Monkeys where such aggressive interactions occur 0-3 times/hour. Only twelve aggressive interactions (all disputes over animal prey) were recorded in more than 3000 observations of Central American Squirrel Monkeys. In ¢.23% of encounters (95% disputing fruit in fruiting trees), Black-capped Squirrel Monkey females interacted in coalitions; female Central American Squirrel Monkeys do not  form coalitions . Female Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys stay in their natal group and, as adults, establish dominance hierarchies and develop alliances in kin-based coalitions. Male-male aggression is also common, and males also  form coalitions . Males play no particular role in group vigilance and do not defend group members from predators. They disperse from their natal groups at 4-5 years of age and  form allmale groups before attempting to join a mixed-sex group. Male coalitions are known to transfer between groups every 2-3 years. Females are dominant to males and keep them on the periphery of the group except during the mating season. Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys regularly travel with Large-headed Capuchins (  Sapajus macrocephalus ). The capuchin monkeys are usually the leaders, and it is believed that they help squirrel monkeys locate large crops of fruits such as figs. In a two-month study at Cocha Cashu, a group of 40-50 Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys associated with capuchin groups for ¢.63% of their time, with distances of 50 m or less between groups. Capuchin groups are smaller (8-12 individuals) and have smaller home ranges (c.80 ha), so squirrel monkeys with larger home ranges associate with up to five different capuchin groups. Association with any particular capuchin group generally lasts about five days, but sometimes they travel together for up to twelve days. When in association with capuchins, squirrel monkeys eat more fruit and nectar and spend less time foraging for animal prey. Capuchins are larger but are outnumbered by the squirrel monkeys. Squirrel monkeys benefit from being led to large fruit crops, which capuchin monkeys are unable to monopolize, but there is a cost. Capuchins are able to monopolize medium-sized and smaller crops, which they locate with the help of the squirrel monkeys. Capuchins travel higher in the forest using more vines and palms where they forage for insects. Foliage gleaning squirrel monkeys, on the other hand, travel and forage more through small and medium-sized trees where they are more likely to discover small to middle-sized fruit crops, which can then be taken over by capuchins. Competition means that both capuchins and squirrel monkeys eat faster when they are traveling together. Capuchins can also dominate insect infestations, such as caterpillar swarms, to the detriment of squirrel monkeys. On the plus side, squirrel monkeys occasionally benefit by gaining access to otherwise inaccessible mesocarp of discarded and dropped Scheelea palm fruits during and following feeding bouts by capuchins. The ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus) and the Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) are confirmed predators of Black-capped Squirrel Monkeys, and the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and the black-and-white hawk-eagle (Spizaetus melanoleucus) have also been seen to attack them. C. Peres compared densities in terra firma and seasonally flooded (varzea) forests along the Rio Jurua. At two varzea sites in the Brazilian Amazon, he obtained densities of 70-7 ind/km? (Sacado do Condor) and 149-2 ind/km?® (Boa Esperanca), and at six terra firma forest sites, also in the Brazilian Amazon, densities were considerably lower: 11-3 ind/km?* (Porongaba), 36-4 ind/km? (Kaxinawa reserve), 25-4 ind/km?* (Penedo), 28-7 ind/km?® (Altamira), 7-7 ind/km? (Igarapé do Jaraqui), and 13-5 ind/km?* (Vai Quem Quer). Density in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru was 50 ind/km*in a forest of lacustrine succession (around Cocha Cashu). </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List, including both subspecies. The Bolivian Squirrel Monkey occurs in Amboro, Isiboro Securé, Carrasco, and Madidi national parks, Manuripi-Heath and Rios Blanco y Negro national reserves, and Beni and Pilon Lajas biosphere reserves in Bolivia; and Serra do Divisor National Park, Rio Acre Ecological Station, and possibly Abufari Biological Reserve in Brazil. In Peru,it occurs in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Yanachaga-Chemillén National Park, and possibly Bahuaja-Sonene National Park and Tambopata National Reserve. The Peruvian Squirrel Monkey occurs in Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Boinski (1999a, 1999b), Groves (2001), Hershkovitz (1984, 1987¢), Jones et al. (1973), Martinez et al. (2010), Mendoza, Lowe &amp; Levine (1978), Mitchell, C.L. (1991, 1994), Mitchell, C.L. et al. (1991), Schneider, Harada et al. (1993), Silva, Sampaio, Schneider, Schneider, Montoya, Encarnacion, Callegari-Jacques &amp; Salzano (1993), Silva, Sampaio, Schneider, Schneider, Montoya, Encarnacion &amp; Salzano (1992), Terborgh (1983, 1985), Williams, Gibson et al. (1994), Williams, Vitulli et al. (1986).</p>
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560F8786B72C285E0806FE6C38E5F354.text	560F8786B72C285E0806FE6C38E5F354.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus nigritus (Goldfuss 1809)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>8.</p>
            <p>Black-horned Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus nigritus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou noir / German: Schwarzer Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino negro</p>
            <p>Other common names: Black Capuchin, Crested Black Capuchin, Horned Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cercopithecus nigritus Goldfuss, 1809 , </p>
            <p> Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.</p>
            <p> C. P. Groves in 2001 recognized the southernmost (darkest) populations of S.  nigritus as a separate subspecies,  Cebus nigritus cucullatus, named by Spix in 1823. Its geographic distribution is poorly known, but it is probably a distinct taxon. Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. NE Argentina (Misiones Province) and SE Brazil, S of the Rio Doce and the Rio Grande (E bank affluent of the Rio Parana) in the states of Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo, extending S through the Atlantic Forest, E of the Rio Parana into the N part of Rio Grande do Sul State, to ¢.29° 50° S. The most S occurring of all capuchins.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 42-56 cm (males) and 42-48 cm (females), tail 43— 56 cm (males); weight 2-6—4-8 kg. The Black-horned Capuchin is a large species, characterized by horn-like tufts of fur on either side of the head at the temples. It is a very dark brown or grayish to black in the most southerly populations, often with reddish or yellow-fawn underparts. A dark crown contrasts greatly with the light colored face, and crown tufts are well developed in adults. The tail is black.</p>
            <p> Habitat. Lowland, submontane, montane tropical, subtropical forest, gallery, and secondary forest. The Black-horned Capuchin was studied by M. Di Bitetti and colleagues in the humid subtropical forest of Iguazu National Park, Argentina, where annual rainfall is 1900-2100 mm but with no marked seasonality. Abundances of fruits and insects are seasonal, however, following day length and temperature—lowest in the winter months ofJune-August and highest in October—January. In Iguazu, Blackhorned Capuchins are found in secondary forests and tall forest with abundant rosewood (  Aspidosperma polyneuron,  Apocynaceae ) and palms (  Euterpe edulis,  Arecaceae ). P. Izar and colleagues studied two groups in submontane and montane semi-deciduous forests of Carlos Botelho State Park in Sao Paulo State, Brazil, and studies of their ecology, demography, and reproduction were conducted by J. W. Lynch and J. Rimoli in a seasonal, semi-deciduous forest patch of ¢.1000 ha at Caratinga Biological Station in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of the Black-horned Capuchin contains fruits, seeds, leaves, roots, and animal prey (including insects and small vertebrates). In Iguazu National Park, fruits and arthropods are scarce in winter (May-August), and key food sources at this time include palm fruits  Syagrus (= Arecastrum) romanzoffiana, important when other fruits are scarce in February—June, figs (  Ficus ,  Moraceae ), fruits of the vine  Pereskia aculeata (  Cactaceae ), shoots of the bamboo  Chusquea ramosissima (  Poaceae ), meristems and leaf bases of epiphytes such as orchids, bromeliads, and  Philodendron (Araceae) , and cultivated trees including  Citrus and the oriental raisin tree  Hovenia dulcis (  Rhamnaceae ). They pick tangerines and put their heads up and back, squeezing the fruit to drink the juice. At Carlos Botelho State Park, principal items in the diet are fruit (average 35%), invertebrate prey (22%), and leaves, especially leaf bases of bromeliads and pith of palm leaf stems (rachis) (36%). Leaves dominate diets in the dry season in the northern part ofits distribution. </p>
            <p> Breeding. Although mating of the Black-horned Capuchin occurs throughout the year (even when they are pregnant and lactating), births occur only in the early and mid-wet season (October-February) when fruit and insect availabilities are at their highest. Females have fertile ovulatory cycles only during a short period in the early dry season when there is an increase in the number of adult females showing proceptive sexual behavior. Females begin cycling in February-March, and few females are still cycling by August. Conception usually occurs after 2-5 ovarian cycles in late autumn or winter when food availability is lowest and day length shortest. At this time, testosterone levels of alpha and subordinate males increase, although there is generally no overt competition among them for the females’ attentions. Adult males are not aggressive toward females as they are in species of  Cebus . Female Black-horned Capuchins solicit mating, usually from the alpha male, with an elaborate courtship. The female’s proceptive phase lasts c.4-6 days at intervals of 14-21 days, probably reflecting the ovarian cycle. Her consortship with an alpha male lasts c.3—4 days. Adult females show a preference for the alpha male; they follow him constantly and consort with subordinate males only when he is engaged with another female. Female Black-horned Capuchins never solicit subadult males. During this consortship, the alpha male is slow to respond and delays copulating for hours or even days. He delays more in the dry season when females are fertile than in the wet season when they are not. After he mates, there is a post-copulatory phase, which is believed to be a form of mate-guarding on the part of the male; he follows the female rather than vice versa. The female ovulates on the sixth or last day of her proceptive phase, and she also mates with subordinate males at this time. When females solicit subordinate males, the courtship is less complex, the response by the male is more immediate, the male and female separate immediately, and there is no post-copulatory consortship. These are referred to as “unimount” copulations. Alpha males are never interrupted by subordinate males, and subordinates are only occasionally interrupted by alpha males. Males evidently do not mate twice in the same day. The reason behind the reluctance of the alpha male to mate is believed to be because they are unable to ejaculate more than once a day, and for this reason, a premium is placed on making sure that each mating counts. Although the alpha male is apparently reticent and choosy, he eventually copulates with all, or nearly all, females in the group in any one mating season, and genetic studies have shown that the alpha male generally sires all offspring in the group. Gestation is ¢.153 days (range 149-158 days). Interbirth intervals at Caratinga Biological Station average 25-6 months (range 21-35 months), which is shortened to eleven months (range 9-14 months) when an infant dies. At Iguazu National Park, the estimated birth rate is 0-6 infants/female/year, with a mean interbirth interval of c.19 months, although some females breed successfully in successive years. When infants die before they are six months old, the interbirth interval is shortened to 11-12 months. The interbirth interval recorded at Carlos Botelho State Park is longer, averaging 30 months (n = ten females). Infants are weaned at 12-18 months. Females reach puberty (begin ovarian cycling) at about four years old, but they first conceive only when they are more than 4-5 years old, giving birth when they are generally 6-7 years old. Females begin cycling in February—March, and few females are still cycling by August. Conception usually occurs after 2-5 ovarian cycles in late autumn or winter when food availability is lowest and day length shortest. </p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Activity budgets of Black-horned Capuchins differ somewhat according to season and whether groups travel together or divide into subgroups. When traveling together in the wet season (food abundant), the day is divided into eating ¢.22% of the time, handling food c.14%, searching (stationary) for food ¢.8%, traveling ¢.39%, resting c¢.6%, social activities ¢.6%, and miscellaneous ¢.5%. In the wet season, individuals in subgroups spend more time eating, less time handling and more time searching for food,less time traveling and resting, and more time in social activities. The same comparison of subgroups in the dry season also found them eating, handling, and searching for food more, while traveling, resting, and socializing less. Overall, foraging (eating, handling, and searching for food) takes up ¢.38-44% of their day. In Carlos Botelho State Park, foraging consumed more time, averaging c.58% oftheir day, with traveling averaging 36%; very little time was spent resting and socializing (average 6%). In Iguaza National Park, one group used 34 sleeping sites during 203 nights, five of which were used more than 20 times each. All sites were tall (average height 31 m), large-crowned (average diameter 14 m) trees with numerous horizontal branches and forks.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of 8-35 Black-horned Capuchins have been recorded at Iguazu National Park (averaging 12-17 individuals depending on the year), occupying home ranges of 81-293 ha (average 161 ha). Home ranges of two groups of eight individuals and 19 individuals in the Carlos Botelho State Park averaged 484 ha. Groups at other locations in the state of Sao Paulo had 8-15 individuals with 1-2 adult males. A group studied at Caratinga Biological Station was relatively large, with 24-28 individuals including four adult males, two subadult males, six adult females, six subadult females, and juveniles and infants. This group tended to divide into subgroups, which, when comparing activity budgets with single cohesive groups, evidently provides a slight but probably significant advantage when looking for food. At Carlos Botelho, groups divide into subgroups when food patches are smaller. At Iguaza, male Black-horned Capuchins disperse from their natal groups at 5-9 years old, but females are philopatric. Females may also transfer groups especially when groups divide or there is a change of the alpha male. Males and females form hierarchies, and although there is often more than one adult male in the social group, females interact and associate more with the alpha male than with subordinate males and other females. The alpha male sires most or all infants born in the group. His tenure can exceed eight years, but young adult females in the group avoid soliciting their father. Infanticide has been recorded when a new male takes over the alpha position in the group. On these occasions, pregnant females mate with the incoming male—probably a strategy to avoid infanticide.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus nigritus ). The Black-horned Capuchin is adaptable and widespread, but the large majority of its original forests have been destroyed and fragmented. It is hunted for food. It occurs in a number of protected areas, including Iguazu National Park in Argentina, and Caparao and Iguacu national parks, Carlos Botelho, Intervales, Alto Ribeira, Morro do Diabo, Rio Doce and Serra do Brigadeiro state parks, and Xitué State Ecological Station in Brazil. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Carosi et al. (1999), Di Bitetti (2001, 2003a), Di Bitetti &amp; Janson (2000, 2001), Di Bitetti et al. (2000), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Groves (2001), Izar, Verderane et al. (2012), Izar, Ramos-da-Silva et al. (2007), Lynch Alfaro (2005, 2007), Lynch &amp; Rimoli (2000), Ramirez-Llorens et al. (2008), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Mittermeier (2005), Torres (1988), Wright &amp; Bush (1977).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72C285E0806FE6C38E5F354	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72F285D08F2FE843C29F5C1.text	560F8786B72F285D08F2FE843C29F5C1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus cay Illiger 1815	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>9.</p>
            <p>Hooded Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus cay</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou du Paraguay / German: Azara-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Azara</p>
            <p>Other common names: Azara’s Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus apella cay Illiger, 1815 , </p>
            <p> left bank of the Rio Paraguai, Paraguay.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. SE Bolivia (departments of Tarija and Santa Cruz), N Argentina (provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Formosa, and Chaco), Brazil (W of the Rio Parana— through the N of Mato Grosso State into SW Goias, and Mato Grosso do Sul states), and Paraguay (E of the Rio Paraguay as far as the mouth of the Rio Parana). Its range to the west in Bolivia is poorly known; it would seem that it is absent from the Bolivian Chaco as it is from the adjacent Paraguayan Chaco west of the Rio Paraguay. There is no evidence to date that the Yungas populations in SE Bolivia and NW Argentina are continuous with the population in Brazil and Paraguay to the E.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head—body 40-45 cm,tail 41-47 cm; weight 3.3-5 kg. The Hooded Capuchin is a small, short-limbed species without sexual dimorphism, typified mainly by its prominent dark dorsal stripe. It is very variable in color but generally quite pale. Its crown is pale to blackish brown with two small tufts like horns. The Hooded Capuchin differs from other robust/tufted capuchins in that hair on the back of the neck and dorsal proximal two-thirds of the tail is slightly burnt brown and dorsal parts of the body (shoulders, front of the upper arms, saddle, rump, and thighs) are grayish-brown. Forearms, hands, wrists, lower legs, and feet are blackish. Eyes, nose, and mouth are variably surrounded by white hairs. There is a small white beard, and a dark line extends down from the ears to the jowls and under the chin.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Subtropical humid and semi-deciduous forests. In southern Bolivia and north-western Argentina in the Yungas Biogeographic Province, Hooded Capuchins are found in seasonal subtropical submontane (laurel) and montane forests up to elevations of ¢.1500 m. In eastern Paraguay, they occur in dense humid semi-deciduous forest and gallery forests in areas of thorn scrub and savanna, but not in the Chaco west of the Rio Paraguay except possibly a small region of the southern wet chaco of the country. In the Pantanal of Mato Grosso, they occur in seasonal semi-deciduous forests and gallery forest.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of Hooded Capuchins is composed largely offruits, leaves and animal prey. Studies in El Rey National Park, Argentina, in the north-western part ofits distribution found seeds and fruits in diets during the wet season (November—March) and a significant preponderance (70%) of succulent leaf bases, peduncles of inflorescences, and infructescenses of epiphytic Bromeliacae (notably Aechmea distichantha but also the larger Tillandsia maxima and Vriesea tucumanensis) throughout the year. In the Pantanal, Hooded Capuchins visit flowers and lick nectar of the vine  Combretum lanceolatum (Combretacae). When feeding in vegetation along riverbanks in the Pantanal, shoals of fish, notably the fruit-eating characid Brycon microlepis, follow capuchins to pick up debris they drop. Fruit of  Guarea cf. guidonia (  Meliaceae ) and  Zanthoxylum riedelianum (  Rutaceae ) particularly attract capuchins and fish. </p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as  Cebus cay ). The Hooded Capuchin is widespread but poorly known. It occurs in Barita, Calilegua, and El Rey national parks in Argentina, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in Bolivia, Pantanal Matogrossense and Serra da Bodoquena national parks in Brazil, and Caaguazu, Cerro Cora, and Ybycui national parks in Paraguay. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Anderson (1997), Brown (1989), Brown &amp; Colillas (1984), Brown &amp; Zunino (1990), Brown, Chalukian &amp; Malmierca (1984), Brown, Chalukian, Malmierca &amp; Colillas (1986), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hill (1960), Prance (1980), Rylands et al. (2005), Sabino &amp; Sazima (1999), Stallings (1985), Torres (1988).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72F285D08F2FE843C29F5C1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72F285D08F6F553351FF9BC.text	560F8786B72F285D08F6F553351FF9BC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus robustus (Kuhl 1820)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>10.</p>
            <p>Crested Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus robustus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou robuste / German: Schopfkapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino crestado</p>
            <p>Other common names: Robust Tufted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus robustus Kuhl, 1820 , </p>
            <p> Morro da Arara, north of the Rio Mucuri, Minas Gerais, Brazil.</p>
            <p> C. P. Groves in 2001 considered this form to be a subspecies of  Cebus nigritus . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. SE Brazil, from the Rio Jequitinhonha in the S of Bahia State S to the rios Doce and Suacui Grande in Espirito Santo State and the E part of Minas Gerais State, E of the Serra do Espinhaco.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 42-56 cm (males) and 33-44 cm (females), tail 43— 56 cm; weight 1.3-4.8 kg. The Crested Capuchin is very dark wood-brown or blackish above and on the limbs, with a trace of a dorsal stripe. Underparts are deep maroonred or yellowish, and forearms, hands, lower legs, and feet are very dark brown to black. The face is dark grayish, with some white hairs on the forehead and temples. Crown tufts are tall and conical.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Tropical lowland and submontane forest, and dry semi-deciduous forest in the caatinga xeric scrub region of the middle Rio Jequitinhona and, farther inland, in forest patches in the cerrado (bush savanna), east of the Serra do Espinhaco.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but the diet presumably includes fruits, seeds, buds, flowers, invertebrates, and small vertebrates.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Crested Capuchins live in groups of 8-10 individuals, with 1-3 adult males. Small groups of about four individuals are believed to be a result of hunting. Densities are always low at ¢.0-2 groups/km?. Population surveys in the Espirito Santo State protected areas indicate densities and total populations of 0-6 ind/km?® and ¢.4766 individuals in Linhares Forest Reserve, 1-5 ind/km* and ¢.2987 individuals in Sooretama Biological Reserve, 1 ind/km?* and c.150 individuals in Corrego do Veado Biological Reserve, and 0-6 ind/km” and ¢.62 individuals in Corrego Grande Biological Reserve.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus robustus ). Hunting of Crested Capuchins for food and pets and widespread destruction and fragmentation of their forests for agriculture, cattle ranching and eucalyptus plantations are the reasons for its endangered status. Less than 9% of the forest in the Espirito Santo State remains and the large majority of remnants are small patches of less than 1000 ha. The future of the Crested Capuchin lies in the permanence of the protected areas in its distribution: Linhares Forest Reserve of the Vale do Rio Doce mining company and Sooretama, Corrego do Veado, and Corrego Grande federal biological reserves in Espirito Santo State and Acaua State Ecological Station in Minas Gerais State. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Chiarello (1995b), Chiarello &amp; de Melo (2001), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Groves (2001), Hill (1960), Martins (2005, 2008), Oliver &amp; Santos (1991), Pinto (1941), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Mittermeier (2005), Torres (1988).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72F285D08F6F553351FF9BC	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72F285C0DFEF9DC3BBEF680.text	560F8786B72F285C0DFEF9DC3BBEF680.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus libidinosus (Spix 1823)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>11.</p>
            <p>Bearded Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus libidinosus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou barbu / German: Rickenstreifen-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino barbudo</p>
            <p>Other common names: Black-striped Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus libidinosus Spix, 1823 , </p>
            <p> Brazil, Rio Carinhanha, north of Minas Gerais, Brazil.</p>
            <p> Replaced by  S. apella to the west, by S. flavius to the east, and by S.  xanthosternos to the south of the Rio Sao Francisco; S.  nigritus occurs just south of the Rio Grande and hybridization between it and S.  libidinosus is evident in the western part of Minas Gerais State (in the area known as the Triangulo Mineiro). Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. C &amp; NE Brazil, W and N of the Rio Sao Francisco to Maranhao State and the W of Piaui State and E to C Rio Grande do Norte (W ofJucurutu), NW Paraiba, W Pernambuco, and W Alagoas states, to the W it extends to the Rio Araguaia and the S limit is the N bank of Rio Grande in Minas Gerais State.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 34—44 cm,tail 38-49 cm; weight 1-3—4-8 kg. The Bearded Capuchin is small without sexual dimorphism. It differs from all other species of  Sapajus by the rusty red hair on the back of the neck, the dark brown preauricular stripe running down the side of the face in front of the ears, sometimes extending to the beard, and the orangey-yellow throat and dorsal parts of the body, flanks, outer parts of arms, and proximal two-thirds of the tail. Forearms are dark, and the lower back and outer surface of thighs are grayish brown, with some reddish hairs. The crown is black, with rounded, sometimes bushy, black tufts. </p>
            <p> Habitat. Two distinct vegetation types in Brazil: dry xerophytic caatinga forest and scrub in the north-east and the cerrado (bush savanna) of central Brazil. In the caatinga, annual rainfall is often below 200 m and rarely above 1000 mm. Bearded capuchins are found in the arboreal caatinga, a dense,tall, closed-canopy, deciduous forest, once widespread but now largely destroyed and degraded. They are also found in shrubby caatinga, low xerophytic, spiny scrub of profusely branched bushy vegetation mixed with prickly succulent cacti, and spiny, rigid-leaved bromeliads, reaching 8-10 m in height. Elevations are 300-600 m above sea level. Bearded Capuchins are generally associated with rocky escarpments and hillsides in mountainous regions. Legumes (  Fabaceae ) and  Euphorbiaceae dominate the flora. The cerrado is a mosaic of savanna and savanna forest (“cerradao”) of twisted and gnarled low trees, often with thick, waxy, xeromorphic leaves, 5-15 m tall, forming a discontinuous canopy, and dry, dense semi-deciduous forest patches. The so-called “campo cerrado” is more open grassland with frequent but isolated trees. Elevations are generally above 500 m, and annual rainfall is 1500-2000 mm. Bearded Capuchins also occupy gallery forest and tall humid forest (“brejos”) in the caatinga, with a mixture of Amazonian and Atlantic Forest plant species benefitting from orogenic rainfall along the plateaus and windward slopes of mountain ranges. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Bearded Capuchins eat mainly fruits and small animal prey, particularly insects. In the caatinga of Fazenda Boa Vista in Piaui State, the diet comprised c.47% fruits, ¢.31% invertebrate prey, c.4% flowers, 4% leaves, and c.12% miscellaneous items. Palm fruits are available throughout the year and provide a vital and abundant food source during the dry season. Palms include  Astrocaryum campestre,  Attalea barreirensis, a second species of  Attalea and a species of Orbignya. In Rio Grande do Norte, they also eat fruits of  Syagrus . Palms are acaulous (a much shortened trunk) and their bunches offruits are at ground level. Bearded Capuchins pull and twist outfruits and eat mesocarp from all except  Astrocaryum . They use hard stones and a sandstone anvil to break open fruits to eat the endocarp. Stones are used to dig out tubers of  Manihot (Euphorpbiacaeae) and Thiloa (  Combretaceae ) and break them into pieces. They are also used to open hollow branchesto get at ant nests and vertebrate prey such as lizards and to get at the soft inner pith of cactuses (Pulosocereus prauhyensis). Twigs are used to probe tree holes and rock crevices for insects, honey, or water. It would appear that tool use, principally using rocks to break open palm fruits, is widespread in the caatinga region where Bearded Capuchins occur. They raid maize and sugar cane plantations. </p>
            <p> Breeding. Aspects of reproduction and breeding of Bearded Capuchins are undoubtedly similar to, or the same as, other species of  Sapajus , but studies are lacking. As in other  Sapajus capuchins, females show proceptive sexual solicitation of the group’s dominant male, who is not aggressive toward females and does not coerce them into mating. Interbirth intervals recorded for four females at the Fazenda Boa Vista averaged 22 months. </p>
            <p> Activity patterns. The activity budget of a group of Bearded Capuchins at Fazenda Boa Vista was foraging (searching for, handling, and eating food) ¢.49%, traveling ¢.37%, resting ¢.10%, and other behaviors such as grooming, play, and soliciting the sexual attentions of dominant males c¢.4%. More time is spent foraging in the dry season when palm fruits, which take some time to process, assume a larger proportion of the diet. The caatinga group of Bearded Capuchins at the Fazenda Boa Vista spends much of its time on the ground, or very near to it, in vegetation that is very open compared with tall forest, and they are correspondingly more skittish. In a direct comparison with Black-horned Capuchins (S.  nigritus ) living in tall forest, rate of alarm calling was higher: 0-2 alarms/hour for Bearded Capuchins compared to 0-1 alarms/hour for Black-horned Capuchins. </p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Bearded Capuchins in the caatinga of Serra da Capivara National Park in Piaui State average nine individuals with a maximum of 16. One group of ten had two males, five females, and three juveniles. Two groups in Fazenda Boa Vista had eight individuals and the other had 19 individuals, with home ranges of ¢.300 ha. A very large group of 53 individuals was found in the arboreal caatinga in the western part of Rio Grande do Norte. Groups of Bearded Capuchins are cohesive and do notsplit into subgroups. Groups of Black-horned Capuchins spread out while foraging, but Bearded Capuchins in these caatinga groups feed from concentrated small clumps of palm fruits, and rates of foodrelated aggression are correspondingly higher. Unlike Black-horned Capuchins, female Bearded Capuchins establish a clear dominance hierarchy.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus libidinosus ). As is true for all species of capuchins, the Bearded Capuchin is hunted wherever it occurs. It has undoubtedly declined in numbers in a diminishing and increasingly fragmented range over the last 40 years, with the enormous expansion of the agricultural frontier in central Brazil. It is, however, widespread and adaptable. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Ferreira, Emidio &amp; Jerusalinsky (2010), Ferreira, Jerusalinsky et al. (2009), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Izar et al. (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hill (1960), Izar, Stone etal. (2008), |zar, Verderane et al. (2012), Moura (2007), Moura &amp; Lee (2004), Moura &amp; McConkey (2007), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Rylands et al. (2005), Silva (2001), Torres (1988), Visalberghi et al. (2007).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72F285C0DFEF9DC3BBEF680	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72E285C0815F611364CF6A9.text	560F8786B72E285C0815F611364CF6A9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus xanthosternos (Wied-Neuwied 1826)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>12.</p>
            <p>Yellow-breasted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus xanthosternos</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou a poitrine jaune / German: Gelbbrust-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de pecho amarillo</p>
            <p>Other common names: Buff-headed Capuchin, Golden-bellied Capuchin, Smooth-headed Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus xanthosternos Wied-Neuwied, 1826 , </p>
            <p> Rio Belmonte, Bahia, Brazil.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. EC Brazil, S and E of the Rio Sao Francisco, S to the Rio Jequitinhonha in the S of Bahia State.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 39-42 cm (males) and 36-39 cm (females), tail 38-45 cm; weight 2.4-8 kg (males) and 1.3-3.4 kg (females). The Yellow-breasted Capuchin is generally brindled reddish above with a sharply marked, golden-red underside. The tail and limbs are black. The crown does not contrast with the body, the cap is black, and the face and temples are fawn. It is sometimes considered to be an exception among the robust/tufted capuchins because it lacks tufts, but it does in fact have small backward pointing tufts when inspected more carefully. In the northern part ofits distribution, Yellow-breasted Capuchins tend be pale, and in the south-west in the north of Minas Gerais State, they are considerably darker in overall color.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Humid tropical lowland and submontane forest and, in the western part of its distribution, dry, semi-deciduous and deciduous forest. In the caatinga, the Yellowbreasted Capuchin is restricted to hills and mountain ranges where more humid forests can be found in valleys and slopes that receive orogenic rainfall.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Yellow-breasted Capuchins eatfruits, flowers, leaves of bromeliads, palm hearts, and small animal prey, including insects, birds (and bird eggs), lizards, and small mammals. They are the largest arboreal mammals in the forests where they live and are important seed dispersers—perhaps the only seed disperser of many of the plants in their habitat. They eat fruits from 96 plant species and swallow seeds of 88 of them. They feed also on cultivated exotic species such as oil palm (  Elaeis guineensis,  Arecaceae ), jackfruit (  Artocarpus heterophyllus,  Moraceae ), and cacao (  Theobroma cacao,  Malvaceae ). </p>
            <p>Breeding. A primiparous female Yellow-breasted Capuchin was recorded having twins in the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center in 1997. Her two infants were carried ventrally for the first month, and then increasingly on her back. In the fifth month, the infants occasionally left their mother and sometimes were carried by other females. Weaning began at one year of age. They weighed 1-5 kg and 1-6 kg at twelve months and 1-7 kg and 1-8 kg at 20 months, and still briefly rode on the mother’s back when they felt threatened. The male did not carry the young.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but sleeping sites are in large emergent trees.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Yellow-breasted Capuchins are 9-27 individuals, but it is not known to what extent small groups result from hunting. A large group of 27 individuals used a large home range of more than 1000 ha, traveling ¢.3000 m during the day, whereas a smaller group of nine individuals used 418 ha. Females are philopatric and show little aggression. Surveys in 2003 2004 provided a density estimate in three forests in southern Bahia of 3-7 ind/km?.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus xanthosternos ). Although there are no reliable estimates of remaining populations of the Yellow-breasted Capuchin,it is believed to be among the rarest of the Neotropical primates. Its forests were largely obliterated during colonization of the region from the early to mid-1500s. Historical records show that in 1757 the region of the Reconcavo da Bahia and the main part of the states of Bahia and Sergipe, where the Yellow-headed Capuchin once thrived, produced more than 300,000 cattle/ year,all bred in pastures that were once tall tropical forests. By 1938, only 0-1% of Sergipe State was forested. There are no localities remaining where the Yellow-breasted Capuchin is found in anything but very low densities. Moreover, they are hunted for their meat and occasionally trapped for the pet trade. The Yellow-breasted Capuchin is known to occur in Una and Mata Escura biological reserves, Serra do Conduru State Park, and Serra das Lontras National Park created in 2010. In 2005, the population in Una Biological Reserve was estimated at 340 individuals (4-4 inds/km?). A breeding program was initiated at the Rio de Janeiro Primate Center in Brazil in 1984, and the Brazilian government established an international committee for the management and conservation of the Yellow-breasted Capuchin in the wild and in captivity in 1992. Between 1990 and 2000, 21 Yellow-breasted Capuchins were sent to seven zoos in Europe. In 2000, as a result of the efforts of the Mulhouse Zoo in France, the Yellow-breasted Capuchin was managed through the European Endangered Species Programme, with no further imports. By 2010, the number of captive individuals had risen to 140 maintained in 21 zoos. Surveys of the wild Yellow-breasted Capuchins resulted in estimates of ¢.3000 individuals remaining in widely scattered localities, but none of the populations are considered viable in the long term. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Baker &amp; Kierulff (2002), Canale et al. (2009), Cassano et al. (2005), Coimbra-Filho (1986d), Coimbra-Filho, da Rocha e Silva &amp; Pissinatti (1992), Coimbra-Filho, Rylands et al. (1991/1992), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Kierulff et al. (2008), Lernould et al. (2012), Oliver &amp; Santos (1991), Pissinatti et al. (1999), Rylands, da Fonseca et al. (1996), Rylands, Kierulff &amp; Mittermeier (2005), Seuanez et al. (1986), Sick &amp; Teixeira (1979), Torres (1988).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72E285C0815F611364CF6A9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72E285B0D12F6C83EDEF523.text	560F8786B72E285B0D12F6C83EDEF523.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus flavius (Schreber 1774)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>13.</p>
            <p>Blond Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus flavius</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou blond / German: Gelber Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino rubio</p>
            <p>Other common names: Blonde Capuchin, Marcgrave’s Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 , </p>
            <p> Corrego do Inferno, Usina Maravilha, municipality of Goiana, Pernambuco, Brazil, 7° 28' 35-95" S, 34° 50° 4-35" W,</p>
            <p> The provenance and identity of S.  flavius , known only from an early illustration, was a mystery until a specimen was collected in 2005. It was described and designated as a neotype by M. Oliveira and A. Langguth in 2006. It was also described as a new species,  Cebus queirozi by A. R. M. Pontes and colleagues in 2006. Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. Coastal NE Brazil from the S of Rio Grande do Norte State (as far W as Jucurutu, 6° 12° S, 37° 02° W,in the caatinga dry forest scrub of the Serra do Estreito), through Paraiba State to NE Pernambuco State; it is possible that it extends to the left bank of the Rio Sao Francisco in Alagoas State.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36.8-40 cm (two males) and 35.1-36.1 cm (two females), tail 37-8 cm (one male) and 42 cm (one female); weight 2.9-3 kg (two males) and 1.8-2.5 kg (two females). The Blond Capuchin is small, distinctive, and untufted. It has a uniformly golden-yellow body and limbs, and lower parts of the body are slightly darker. Hands and feet are black, and the tail is uniformly golden-blond (darker than the rest of the body on the dorsal side). It has a rectangular, snow-white cap on the front of the head, extending to just above the ears, and a furless, pendulous throat flap. The face and forehead are pinkish, and eyes are brown. Sizes of tracks of adults on the ground are, on average, 72-4 mm for the hand (n = 20) and 95 mm for the foot (n = 22).</p>
            <p> Habitat. First found in degraded patches of coastal Atlantic Forest and  Montrichardia linifera (  Araceae ) swamp in Pernambuco. In the west of Rio Grande do Norte, the Blond Capuchin has been recorded in shrubby caatinga, a low xerophytic, spiny scrub of profusely branched bushy vegetation up 8-10 m in height, mixed with prickly succulent cacti, and spiny, rigid-leaved bromeliads. It has also been observed using sand dunes, mangroves, sugar cane, and corn plantations, all of which bordered the forest fragments. It uses all layers ofthe forest, including ground. </p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. The Blond Capuchin eats fruits, leaves, insects, spiders, and small vertebrates. More than 32 items were recorded in the diet of a population in Paraiba State. Another population in a forest patch north of Mamanguape in north-eastern Paraiba used tools to obtain termites (Nasutitermes) in arboreal nests. Individuals first slapped the nest with both hands and then broke off a small twig, ¢.20-30 cm long, and stuck it into the nest by pushing and rotating the twig, holding it at its tip near the nest. Sometimes they broke the twig to shorten it, evidently needing it to be more rigid or fine. After perforating the nest, they pulled out the twig and ate any termites attached to it. They repeated the procedure three or four times in a bout, and before reinserting the twig, they slapped the nest again with the left hand. Each bout of “termite-fishing” lasted 40-60 seconds before the twig was discarded. Researchers imitated the capuchins and found that rotating the twig helped to perforate the nest (just trying to push the twig in was ineffective—it would break) and slapping the nest increased numbers of termites biting the twig. This termite-fishing behavior has not yet been observed in any other population of Blond Capuchins.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no specific information for this species, but infant Blond Capuchins have been seen throughout the year.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Blond Capuchins spend most of their time searching for, handling, and eating food and traveling. In the caatinga scrub, they are very terrestrial.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There are four research teams studying the Blond Capuchin in the wild and in captivity. Group size varies depending on location: 18-52 individuals in Pernambuco, 45 individuals in caatinga in the Serra do Estreito in south-central Rio Grande do Norte, and 7-72 individuals in forest fragments north of Mamanguape, Paraiba. Camera-trapping showed group sizes of 2-32 individuals, but single individuals were also recorded. Blond Capuchins have a rich vocal repertoire, with at least ten different call types. Call frequencies are 0-5-10 kHz. Some calls seem to carry information about individual age and have a behavioral context. Blond Capuchins apparently have a complex fusion-fission society. Only females carry infants.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus flavius ). The Blond Capuchin may have been one of the first of the South American primates to be taken to Europe, evidenced by a fresco by Andrea del Sarto in the Villa Medici of Poggio a Caiano, near Florence, called “Iributo a Cesare” dating from 1519-1521, which clearly depicts the Blond Capuchin. This underlines the long history of region’s colonization, accompanied by widespread and extremely rapid destruction of natural vegetation in the early 1500s. Enormous quantities of timber were exported, and forests were replaced with cattle pasture, sugar cane plantations, and, in many areas, desert scrub. Today, the Blond Capuchin lives close to highly populated areas in north-eastern of Brazil, north of the Rio Sao Francisco where only 5% of the original forest remains. Although small populations of the Blond Capuchin occurring through a relatively large area, they are restricted to isolated forest patches surrounded by sugar cane plantations. These small populations are extremely vulnerable, susceptible to selective cutting of forest,fires, hunting, and disturbance by tourists and domestic animals. In 2008, the total population was estimated at only 180 individuals, scattered over some two dozen subpopulations. Including the caatinga populations of Blond Capuchins discovered more recently, it is probable the total population is 1000-2000 individuals. Blond Capuchins have been reported in 26 fragments of Atlantic Forest in north-eastern Brazil and 15 fragments in the Paraiba State. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Bastos et al. (2012), Bezerra et al. (2012), Brazil, ICMBio-MMA (2012), Coimbra-Filho &amp; Camara (1996), Ferreira et al. (2009), Masseti &amp; Veracini (2010), de Oliveira &amp; Langguth (2006), Pontes et al. (2006), Souto et al. (2011).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72E285B0D12F6C83EDEF523	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B729285A08ECF572384FFC83.text	560F8786B729285A08ECF572384FFC83.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus apella (Linnaeus 1758)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>14.</p>
            <p>Guianan Brown Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus apella</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou brun / German: Haubenkapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino pardo</p>
            <p>Other common names: Black-capped Capuchin, Brown Capuchin; Margarita Island Capuchin (margaritae)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia apella Linnaeus, 1758 , </p>
            <p> “America.” Restricted by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1812 to “Cayenne, French Guiana.”</p>
            <p> Taxonomy of Amazonian robust/ tufted capuchins is still not well understood. Eight Amazonian subspecies of  Cebus apella were listed by W. C. O. Hill in 1960. These were largely ignored because of their uncertain distributions and difficulties of understanding regional variation or patterns, with so much variation in tufts and color patterns. C. P. Groves in 2001 listed five of Hill's subspecies as valid species or subspecies. J. S. Silva,Jr. in 2001 argued for the existence ofjust two Amazonian robust capuchin species:  S. apella in the eastern and central Amazon Basin and S.  macrocephalus (recognized as a subspecies of  apella by Hill) in the western Amazon Basin. Following Silva,  S. apella includes, as a junior synonym, C. fatuellus tocantinus, named by Lonnberg in 1939—a dark capuchin from Cameta, Rio Tocantins, Brazil (recognized by Hill and Groves). Preliminary genetic studies byJ. W. Lynch Alfaro and her coworkers indicated that  apella and  macrocephalus may not be distinct taxa, but further studies are needed. Two subspecies recognized. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> S. a. apellaLinnaeus, 1758 — forestsoftheAmazonBasininECColombia, SVenezuela, andBrazil, extendingNtotheSpartoftheOrinocoDeltainVenezuelaandtheGuianas; limitsintheS, SE, andEaredefinedbytheextentoftheAmazonforest, intheEextendingintotheZonadosCocais (babassupalm, Orbignyaphalerata, forest) intheSandEofMaranhaoStatethatmarksthetransitionzonetoxericdeciduousforestandscrubofthecaatinga; intheW, thedistributionallimitsarepoorlyknown, butdefinedroughlybytheinterfluviumoftheriosNegroandSolimoesandtheRioMadeiraBasin.</p>
            <p> S. a. margaritae Hollister, 1914 — highlands of E Margarita I, Venezuela (Serrania de El Copey and the Cerros El Tamoco, Tragaplata, La Yalla, and Matasiete). </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 38-46 cm,tail 38-49 cm; weight 2-3—4-8 kg (males) and 1.3-3.4 kg (females). The Guianan Brown Capuchin is large and somewhat heavily built, with a broad head, flat face, and short limbs. The coatis long and coarse, with extremities noticeably darker than the rest of the body. It is generally gray-fawn to dark brown above, with a yellowish or red underside. Lower limbs and tail are black, and there is a variably well-developed dorsal stripe. The face is light gray-brown, and the characteristic crown tuft consists of a thick mat of erect black hairs, forming short tufts above the ears. This gives the top of the head a flat, squared-off or “eared” frontal outline or, alternately, elongated at each frontalside to form “horns.” The black crown of the Guianan Brown Capuchin forms a slight vertex on the forehead (not extending to the nose), and there is whitish line framing the face, forming a slight arch above the eyes. The face and temples are light gray-brown. The darker area above the eyes gives the appearance of eyebrows. The crown cap extends down the cheeks as a distinct, thick black bar in front of each ear; these “sideburns” often meet below the chin. Sexes are similar, but males are a bit heavier and often considerably darker. The “Margarita Island Capuchin” (S. a. margaritae) is darker than forms from the upper Orinoco in Venezuela. Dark sideburns in front of the ears are longer (extending from crown to throat) and more defined than in the nominate subspecies of the Guianan Brown Capuchin. When tufts are present, they are longer in the nominate  form than in the Margarita Island Capuchin. In the Margarita Island Capuchin, outsides of upper arms and shoulders are a pale-yellow straw color. Wrists, ankles, and inner forearms are black, thighs and rump are brindled (pale yellow) brown, and flanks, lower back, and upper chest are pale brown, becoming paler on the upper back to the neck. There is a dark midline stripe down the back. The face is grayish, tinged pink on the cheeks and chin, with sparse whitish hairs on the temples and around the mouth. The face is framed by a black line extending from the black cap to sideburns to the throat. The black cap extends in a “V” to between the eyes, with small round tufts above each eye. The  form from the Rio Tocantins Basin is dark gray-fawn to dark chestnut-brown, with reddish undersides and flanks. There is a trace of a dorsal stripe. Forearms, thighs, shanks, feet, and tail are black. The head is also black with little trace of white, and crown tufts are well developed. </p>
            <p>Habitat. A wide range of forest types: lowland, submontane (700-1000 m above sea level), and montane forests of the Guiana and Brazilian shields of the central and eastern Amazon Basin, including seasonally inundated forests, tidal flooded forest (tidal varzea) in the delta region of the Amazon River, mangrove forest and palm swamp forest, liana forest (“mata de cip6”), gallery forest and forest patches in the Roraima and Amapa states savannas, and open-canopied babassu palm (Orbignya) forest on the south-eastern border of the Amazon River in the states of Maranhao, Goias, and Para. Although the geographic distribution of the Guianan Brown Capuchin includes sclerophytic, small-leaved, white-sand forests (“caatinga alta” or “campinarana,” also Wallaba forest in the Guianas) and scrub (“caatinga baixa” or “campina”) typical of the Rio Negro Basin and also Serra do Cachimbo on the Para State/Mato Grosso State border, it is not known to what extent they occupy them. The Margarita Island Capuchin is confined to isolated montane forest patches in the eastern part of the island, including pre-montane dry forest, humid montane and pre-montane forest, and disturbed (broken canopy) palm forest (“cocal”).</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of Guianan Brown Capuchins consist of fruits and seeds (68%), small animal prey (197%), and other items such as palm heart, the rachis of palm leaves, and the succulent bases of bromeliad leaves (12:3%). In a study by W. Spironello near Manaus in the Central Amazon, six species of palms (  Arecaceae ) figured prominently in the diet of a group of 9-14 Guianan Brown Capuchins, particularly two species: Jessenia (=  Oenocarpus ) bataua and Maximiliana (=  Attalea ) maripa. They ate the albumen (endocarp) of immature fruits and the mesocarp of mature fruits of these two species and  Oenocarpus bacaba,  Astrocaryum munbaca,  Mauritia flexuosa, and  Syagrus inajai. In the early dry season, 42% of all records of fruit feeding were of palms fruits, peaking at ¢.52% in July. Throughout the year, the group ate fruits, seeds, nectar, gum, inflorescences, pith, and petioles from more than 200 plant species. Besides palms, the other plant families most commonly found in the diet included  Sapotaceae (  Micropholis ,  Chrysophyllum ,  Pouteria ),  Moraceae (  Brosimum ,  Ficus ),  Urticaceae (Pourouma) ,  Fabaceae (Inga) ,  Euphorbiaceae (Micrandropsis) ,  Goupiaceae (Goupra glabra), and  Lecythidaceae . This group of Guianan Brown Capuchins had a very large home range of ¢.850 ha, probably because of the low density of palms in the area. Further north in Suriname and Guiana, where rains are also very seasonal, palms  Socratea exorrhiza and Maximiliana maripa are important to Guianan Brown Capuchin in the dry season. In Suriname, the Guianan Brown Capuchin’s propensity to pound hard fruits is particularly applied to the thick-husked woodyfruits of the Brazil nut family,  Lecythidaceae . When immature, the fruit is relatively soft, and the reward of seeds rich in lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates easily compensates for difficulties of getting at them. In a study at the Nouragues Field Station, French Guiana, S. Zhang found that Guianan Brown Capuchins ate mostly fruits during the wet season (December— June), peaking in March—June when 80-99% of the diet was fruit. In the dry season (October), fruits comprised as little as 30% of the diet, which was supplemented by flowers, pith, stems, petioles, and leaves and an increase in the time spent foraging for animal prey. Guianan Brown Capuchins eat freshwater crabs (  Pseudothelphusidae ) along river banks. They eat oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae) from mangrove swamps, banging them with oyster shells until they weaken and open. Vertebrate prey includes frogs, lizards, birds, and small mammals such as mouse opossums (Marmosa). The diet of the Margarita Island Capuchin, studied by L.. Marques and V. Sanz in 1989-1990, was 50-9% fruits, 24-6% insects, 14% pith, 3:5% petioles, 3-5% seeds, and 3-5% flowers. Animal prey include Hymenoptera (ants: adults, larvae and pupae), Orthoptera, and Coleoptera. Guianan Brown Capuchins use similar methods to forage for animal prey and exploit palm fruits as do Large-headed Capuchins (S.  macrocephalus ). </p>
            <p> Breeding. The menstrual cycle of the Guianan Brown Capuchin is 20-8 days; menstruation lasts three days, sometimes evidenced by a minimal menstrual bleeding. Births peak in October—January. Normally only one offspring is born at a time. Mean interbirth interval in captivity is 20-6 months (n = 23 successive births). Males are directly involved with the young or are at least tolerant of them. Females are fully adult at c.4-5 years, but males take longer to mature (up to eight years in some cases). As in other species of  Sapajus , females show proceptive behavior during the periovulatory period, ending on the sixth day when ovulation occurs. The female stays with the alpha male, showing courtship behavior: grimacing, eyebrow raising, circling the male, presenting and touching him, and making mating calls. The male is slow to respond but eventually may mount several times. This courting can continue for up to four days; on the fifth day, the alpha male follows the female and interferes with subordinate males attempting to mate with her. On the sixth day, the alpha male leaves the female. She may then mate with subordinate males, but without prolonged courtship, and the partners separate immediately after mating. Gestation is c.155 days. Neonates weigh ¢.210 g (range 170-260 g), or ¢.9% of the mother’s weight. Neonatal growth is rapid for eight weeks after birth but then slows. Female Guianan Brown Capuchins stop growing at aboutfive years old, but males continue to gain weight for another couple of years. In captivity, males are fertile when they are a little more than four years old, but in the wild, they probably do not breed for another few years when they can secure a position as an alpha male. Females are fertile and able to reproduce atfive years old. </p>
            <p>Activity patterns. In a study in the Nouragues Field Station, activity patterns varied during the year, influenced largely by food availability and dispersion. In the wet season when fruits were abundant and widespread, Guianan Brown Capuchins tended to travel more widely. Throughout the year, feeding on fruits took up 20-30% of the day, foraging for animal prey 20-35%, travel 20-30% (more time was spent in travel in December—January in the early wet season), 5-10% resting, and 4-15% in other activities (e.g. grooming and play). When traveling and foraging, they generally used middle and lower canopies and understory, 10-20 m above the ground. Sleeping sites in the Manaus and Nouragues studies were typically in crowns oftall (20-25 m) Jessenia palms, where individuals could lie flat on the leaf bases and where access to the tree was limited to fronds, providing some protection from mammalian predators.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Guianan Brown Capuchin lives in single-male or age-graded (with a single dominant male) groups of generally 10-20 individuals, including up to five adult females. The Margarita Island Capuchin lives in small single-male groups of 4-6 individuals, including 1-2 adult females, subadults, and juveniles. The geographic distribution of the Guiana Brown Capuchin largely coincides with the Guiana and Brazilian shields, very ancient rock formations with nutrient poor soils compared with alluvial plains of the western Amazon Basin, occupied by the Large-headed Capuchin. Forest productivity of the shields is low, and home ranges tend to be large, from 355 ha at the Nouragues Field Station in French Guiana to 850 ha north of Manaus. At Manaus, daily home ranges were 34-70 ha and daily movements were 2236-4560 m. In this terra firma forest, Guianan Brown Capuchins spent 39% of their time in areas of poorly drained soils along streams where their favored palm, Jessenia bataua, was found. They typically slept in these palms (92% of the recorded sleeping sites). Daily movements were longer in the wet season when fruit sources were more widespread. A similar pattern was found in Nouragues where daily movements were 1746-3469 m (average 2268 m) and were longer in December—January when fruiting trees were neither scarce nor abundant but widespread. Small groups of Margarita Island Capuchins occupy home ranges of ¢.30 ha. Predators include forest cats and the large raptors.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as  Cebus apella ), with the Margarita Island Capuchin classified as Critically Endangered (as C. a. margaritae). The Guianan Brown Capuchin is intensively hunted for meat, particularly where the larger atelines have already been hunted out. It is adaptable, however, and wide ranging in the remotest and most untouched areas of the Amazon Basin to the north of the Amazon River. To the south of the river, enormous areas of forest are being destroyed in northern Mato Grosso and southern Para states in the Madeira and Tapajos basins. The Guianan Brown Capuchin occurs in numerous and large protected areas. The Margarita Island Capuchin is well separated from other robust/tufted capuchin monkeys—the nearest population is in the southern extreme of the Orinoco Delta, ¢.1200 km away—and suffers from a tiny distribution, habitat degradation, illegal hunting, and commerce. Capuchins raid crops and are considered to be pests and persecuted, even though they are also favored as pets. Possibly a further threat to the Margarita Island Capuchin is the recent introduction of the Guianan Weeper Capuchin (  Cebus olivaceus ) to Margarita Island, where they may compete for diminishing habitat. The Margarita Island Capuchin occurs in Cerro El Copey National Park (7130 ha), but parts of the Park are being encroached upon and there is illegal logging. It is also found in Cerro Matasiete y Guayamuri Natural Monument (1672 ha), which affords it some protection. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boher-Bentti &amp; Cordero-Rodriguez (2000), Boinski et al. (2001), Fernandes (1991), Fernandes et al. (1995), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Guillotin et al. (1994), Groves (2001), Husson (1957), Linares (1998), Lonnberg (1939), Lynch Alfaro, Boubli et al. (2012), Marquez &amp; Sanz (1991), Martinez et al. (2000), Mittermeier &amp; van Roosmalen (1981), Nagle &amp; Denari (1982), Phillips et al. (1994), Port-Carvalho et al. (2004), Rettig (1978), Rylands et al. (2005), Sanz &amp; Marquez (1994), Simmen &amp; Sabatier (1996), Spironello (1991, 2001), Torres (1988), Zhang Shuyi (1995a, 1995b), Zhang Shuyi &amp; Wang Lixin (1995).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B729285A08ECF572384FFC83	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B72828590D13FC143714F4D8.text	560F8786B72828590D13FC143714F4D8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sapajus macrocephalus (Spix 1823)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>15.</p>
            <p>Large-headed Capuchin</p>
            <p> Sapajus macrocephalus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou a grosse téte / German: GroRkopf-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de cabeza grande</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus macrocephalus Spix, 1823 , </p>
            <p> forests of Lago Cactua, near Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.</p>
            <p> In 2001, J. S. Silva, Jr. argued for just two species of Amazonian robust/ tufted capuchins:  S. apella in the eastern and central Amazon Basin and S.  macrocephalus (recognized as a subspecies of  apella by W. C. O. Hill in 1960 and C. P. Groves in 2001) in the western Amazon (distributional limits poorly defined). Following Silva, S.  macrocephalus includes, as junior synonyms, Simia fatuellus from the upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia (recognized by Hill and Groves),  Cebus fatuellus peruanus from Huaynapata, Marcapata, 760 m, Cuzco, Peru (recognized by Hill, Groves, and R. Aquino and F. Encarnacion in 1994),  Cebus apella maranonis from Hamburgo, Peru (recognized by Hill and Aquino and Encarnacion),  Cebus pallidus from the Rio Beni (recognized by Hill, Groves, and S. Anderson in 1997),  Cebus libidinosusjuruanus from opposite Joao Pessoa, Rio Jurud, Brazil (recognized by Hill and Groves), and  Cebus apella magnus from the Rio Putumayo, 1° N, 76° W (recognized by Hill). The form in central and northern Bolivia (south of the Rio Madre de Dios) has also been referred to as S.  libidinosus pallidus and  S. apella pallidus in recent publications. Preliminary genetic studies in 2012 by J. W. Lynch Alfaro and her coworkers failed to indicate that  apella and  macrocephalus were distinct taxa, but further research is needed. Monotypic. </p>
            <p> Distribution. Upper Amazon Basin in E Colombia (N as far as the Rio Arauca on the Venezuelan border; an isolated population in the upper Rio Magdalena in the Huila Department), E Ecuador, E Peru, W Brazil, and C &amp; N Bolivia (S at least to the upper Rio Beni); the exact limits of its distribution have not been delineated, and particularly where they meet those of the Guianan Brown Capuchin (  S. apella ) in the Rio Madeira Basin, in the N along the Orinoco, and in the interfluvium of the Rio Solimoes and upper Rio Negro. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 37.5-45.5 cm (males) and 39.5-40.9 cm (females), tail 42-549 cm (males) and 41.6-42 cm (females); weight 2:9.4-6 kg (males) and 1.3-3.4 kg (females). The overall color of the Large-headed Capuchin is gray-brown or gray-ochery to dark brown above, with a dark dorsal stripe, and yellow-fawn or red-gold (occasionally blackish) below. Sides of the neck are lighter, upper arms are pale yellowish, and legs are black with yellow-fawn or red-gold below. In the darkest individuals, the crown contrasts very little with the body, and shape of the crown cap in front (i.e. angular or broad) and presence of white margins are variable. Adults have very welldeveloped, high, pointed crown tufts that resemble horns, which become reduced or flattened with age. There is often a gray-white stripe running from eye to ear. Three forms of the Large-headed Capuchin have been noted. The Colombian form is bright brown above and red below and has a prominent dorsal stripe. Its face is almost naked and a dark purplish flesh color. The Peruvian form is uniformly dark chestnut-brown above, becoming more reddish toward the flanks, and is deep yellow-brown below. A dark brown band runs down the midline of the back. Its legs, tail, and (occasionally) forearms are black. Its cap is black and distinct, and temples and sides of the crown are often white. There is a crescent-shaped whitish patch above each eye. Crown tufts are absent or minimal. The third  form from Brazil is reddish-brown above with a very pronounced blackish dorsal stripe. The throat and upper chest are blackish or pale reddish-buff, and limbs and tail are dark brown or black. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Evergreen humid tropical lowland forests, including seasonally inundated forests, bamboo forest, palm swamps, and subtropical montane (cloud) forests of the upper Amazon Basin, up to elevations of 1800 m in Peru and 1300 m in Colombia. In Ecuador, the Large-headed Capuchin is mostly found below 600 m, but there is an isolated population in the Rio Magdalena, Colombia, at 2700 m. It extends north through the deciduous gallery forests of the Eastern Llanos of the eastern tributaries of the Orinoco in Colombia as far north as Rio Arauca, but apparently not extending into Venezuela (Maracaibo Basin).</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of the Large-headed Capuchin largely consists of fruit and insects but also seeds, pith, leaves, stems, flowers, nectar, millipedes, spiders, snails, frogs, lizards, nestlings, and bird eggs. Fruits include succulent drupes and berries,especially of  Moraceae , and palm (  Arecaceae ) fruits, which are a particularly important part of their diet. A study by K. Izawa and colleaguesin a site near the Rio Duda on the western border of Sierra de la Macarena National Natural Park in Colombia recorded six species of palmsin their diet, four of which—  Astrocaryum chambira, Jessenia polycarpa,  Socratea elegans , and  Oenocarpus mapora—were systematically exploited for their fruits, particularly the albumen. Large-headed Capuchins also eat flowers and mesocarp of ripe fruits from  Astrocaryum and Jessenia. They put young  Astrocaryum fruit up to their mouth, raise their head up, and with one bite, open it and drink the albumen. With older  Astrocaryum fruit, they bite off the exocarp and puncture the already woody husk through the germ-pore with their canine teeth, and then bash it against nodes of giant bamboo (  Bambusa ,  Poaceae ) and lick up the yogurt-like albumen that comes out. When olderstill, with the germ-pore closed, they eat the lipid-rich mesocarp and then open the fruit by bashing it against bamboo nodes until it cracks, and they then eat the hardened albumen. Studies by J. Terborgh and C. Janson in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, showed that palms are also important to Large-headed Capuchins, including, to varying degrees,  Astrocaryum ,  Bactris ,  Iriartea ,  Mauritia , and Scheelea. They eat immature inflorescences and pith of frond petioles (rachis) of  Astrocaryum and Scheelea, fleshy lipid-rich mesocarp of fruits of all palm species, apical meristem (palm heart) of  Bactris , and endosperm (albumen) of seeds of  Astrocaryum .  Astrocaryum and Scheelea plams are abundant in Manu, and with densities estimated at 39 trees/ha and 25 trees/ha, respectively, a group of Large-headed Capuchins with a home range of ¢.50 ha has access to more than 1000 trees of each species. Fruits comprise 99% of the plant part of the diet in the wet season, but only 66% in the dry season. Fruits and seeds (also pith and meristems) of these palm species are the mainstay (64% of feeding time) of the diet through the early dry season (May-July) when fruit is scarce. Figs are also important in the early dry season (27% of the diet) and even more so in the second one-half of the dry season (49% of the diet). In the wet season,fruits of palms or fig trees comprise 82% (October-December) to 90% (January-April) of the diet. C. Peres made a particular study of seed predation by Large-headed Capuchins at Urucu in the Purus Basin, south-western Amazonian Brazil. Seeds of palms such as Jessenia (=  Oenocarpus ) bataua are important in their diet throughout the year. Their asynchronous fruiting and relative abundance (22-7 trees/ha) meant that the impact of Large-headed Capuchins was not significant—many trees were never visited while fruiting. Seeds and arthropods were important foods in the middle of the dry season when fleshy fruits were rare, and at this time, Large-headed Capuchins had a devastating effect on seed crops of twelve  Cariniana micrantha (Lecythidacae) that fruited during a 3-5 week period. The fruit of C. micrantha is a woody pyxidia containing numerous winged seeds that are dispersed by the wind when an operculum opens and releases them. Large-headed Capuchins pick off the fruits and bash them, at first with force and then more gently when they perceive that the operculum seal has cracked. If the operculum seal does not crack, they drop the fruit and try another. If it cracks, they pull it out and pick off and eat the highly nutritious seeds. Almost all of the fruits were either successfully cracked open and their seeds eaten (69:5%) or rotted on the forest floor (30-1%). In Colombia, Izawa also noted Large-headed Capuchins eating young bamboo leaves and occasionally leaf stems from  Monstera pertusa (  Araceae ),  Calathea (Marantaceae) , and  Heliconia (Heliconiaceae) . Izawa observed an adult female catching and eating a Proboscis Bat (Rhynchonycteris naso). The insects eaten by Largeheaded Capuchins include ants (adults, larvae, pupae, and eggs) that they look for in bamboo internodes and Crematogaster and Azteca ants that they find in hollow twigs and small rotten branches. When foraging in bamboo, they scan culms, probably looking for signs of attack or small holes, and then run their hands up the internodes, tapping lightly and listening for frogs or insects (including orthtopterans) inside. If they hear movement, they bite and rip open the culm to take the prey. They also break open ant nests in the joints of the leaves of  Phenakospermum guyanense (  Strelitziaceae ) and among the moribund leaves of Jessenia. Large-headed Capuchins bite open termite nests to eat adults, nymphs, and eggs; they hunt for grasshoppers among leaf litter and debris piles caught in the palm trees; and they eat beetle larvae, wasp larvae, and honeycombs whenever they find them. Terborgh noted that foraging for animal prey by Large-headed Capuchins is essentially manipulative and destructive, biting open and breaking bamboo canes, dead branches, and palm rachides; stripping bark; and generally rummaging in leaflitter and forest debris, particularly in palm crowns and liana tangles. Large-headed Capuchins spend more time searching in palms (32% of animal prey foraging time) than sympatric species of  Cebus (21%), which are less destructive in their foraging and spend more time looking for insects hidden in more easily manipulated substrates (e.g. leaf curls and litter). </p>
            <p>Breeding. The ovarian cycle of the Large-headed Capuchin is c¢.22 days. A female is proceptive, constantly soliciting the attention of and mating (once a day at most) with the alpha male during her ovulatory cycle of c.5-6 days. During the first 3-4 days of her ovulatory cycle, she persistently follows the alpha male, approaching, touching, running away, grimacing, eyebrow-raising, making distinctive calls, and adopting submissive postures. On the penultimate day of her ovulatory cycle, the female begins to solicit other males, and the alpha male follows her and prevents them from approaching, although aggression between males is infrequent. Active solicitation by the female is believed to be related to the alpha male’s ability to control the other group members’ access to food sources, particularly palm fruits, during periods of food scarcity. The alpha male tolerates females with whom he has mated. He may also intervene on a female’s behalf in disputes over food with other group members, particularly subordinate males. Food shortage at Cocha Cashu in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve during the early dry season is considered to be critical enough to affect the females’ health and fecundity. It is unclear why females solicit and copulate with other males at the end of their ovulatory cycle, but it may ensure pregnancy if the alpha male is infertile and confer future benefits considering that an alpha male’s tenure may be limited. Gestation is c.153 days. At Sierra de la Macarena National Natural Park, Colombia, most births occur in the early wet season (February—June). Females first give birth at 7-8 years old. Interbirth intervals average 25-6 months when the infant survives but 15-5 months when the infant is lost. At Cocha Cashu, births occur in the early and middle part of the wet season (October-December) when fruit abundance is increasing. Infants begin to leave their mothers at about three months old, and juveniles carry infants. Sixmonth-old infants eat tidbits of food, and weaning begins at 8-12 months and is completed by ¢.20 months. Males, but not adult females, play with the infant.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Large-headed Capuchins in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve spent 50% oftheir time foraging for small animal prey, 22% traveling, 16% feeding on plant material, 12% resting, and the remainderin social activities (e.g. grooming, courting, and playing). Eating fruit peaks in the early morning and again in the middle of the afternoon, but the predominant activity during the day is foraging for animal prey. Resting peaks for 30-60 minutes at ¢.12:00 h.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. At Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, groups of Large-headed Capuchins are generally 8-14 individuals, with one alpha male, one or more subordinate males, and 1-4 adult females. At Sierra de la Macarena National Natural Park, five groups monitored during five years ranged in size as follows: 13-16, 14-19, 8-10, 12-13, and 17-23. The last group had 7-8 adult males and 4-5 adult females. At one point when there were seven adult males in this group, five of them fought, causing serious wounding and the death of one of them. The group split into two groups, based on two dominant female lineages: one with six individuals and the other with eight individuals. The larger of the new groups grew over the following two years to 15 individuals, with three adult males and five adult females. Home ranges of groups at Manu are ¢.80 ha, with daily movements of 1630-2620 m. Male and female Large-headed Capuchins  form hierarchies . Dominant individuals are rarely challenged by subordinates. There is a single alpha male, and the most dominant female is immediately below him in rank. Disputes are typically over food sources, particularly palm fruits, figs, Strychnos (Loganiceae) fruits, and  Combretum (Combretaceae) nectar. Dominant individuals feed more at these food sources than subordinates, and the alpha male is able to commandeer feeding sites and allow females that mate with him to feed, while disallowing others. He favors his presumed offspring the same way. Individuals that he is intolerant of spend more time foraging for animal prey to compensate their otherwise reduced food intake. This is believed to be related to the evolution of their unusual mating system of prolonged proceptive behavior by females toward the alpha male during the periovulatory periods.  Cebus males, by contrast, monitor females reproductive status, are aggressive to them, and pursue them to mate with them rather than vice versa. Males are more vigilant for predators (especially raptors) than females, and they confront and mob terrestrial predators and intervene when individuals in the group are threatened. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as  Cebus macrocephalus ). Large-headed Capuchins are hunted, and they can become a principal target when larger spider and woolly monkeys are locally extirpated. There are areas where they have been extirpated in Ecuador and Peru. They are now classified as Near Threatened in Ecuador, but they are adaptable and wide ranging and occur in large, remote protected areas in the western Amazon Basin. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Defler (1982, 2003b, 2004), Escobar-Paramo (1989), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Groves (2001), Hernadndez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hill (1960), Izawa (1978b, 1979a, 1992, 1994a, 1994b), Izawa &amp; Mizuno (1977), Janson (1984, 1985, 1986), Lynch Alfaro, Boubli et al. (2012), Peres (1991c¢), Phillips, Bernstein et al. (1994), Phillips, Grafton &amp; Haas (2003), Podolsky (1990), Rylands et al. (2005), Silva (2001), Struhsaker &amp; Leland (1977), Terborgh (1983), Torres (1988), Wright &amp; Bush (1977).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B72828590D13FC143714F4D8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73428460800FE3F3E6FF4DB.text	560F8786B73428460800FE3F3E6FF4DB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus yuracus (Hershkovitz 1949)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>16.</p>
            <p>Maranon White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus yuracus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou du Maranon / German: Maranon-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino del Maranon</p>
            <p>Other common names: Peruvian White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus albifrons yuracus Hershkovitz, 1949 , </p>
            <p> Montalvo, a site on the left bank of Rio Bobanaza, c.45 km above its junction with the Rio Pastaza, an affluent of the Maranon, eastern Ecuador, elevation ¢.500 m.</p>
            <p> C. P. Groves in 2001 considered this form to be a junior synonym of  C. cuscinus . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. S Colombia, E Ecuador, NE Peru (N of the Rio Amazonas to the Rio Putumayo, and W of the Rio Ucayali, S as far the Rio Pachitea), and presumably E Brazil (between the rios Ica and Amazonas).</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head—body 43 cm (males) and 37 cm (females), tail 47 cm (males) and 45 cm (females); weight 2.4-7 kg. The Maranon White-fronted Capuchin is grayfronted on the forehead, sides of the face, chest, and outer sides of the arms. It is similar to Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin (  C. unicolor ), but its general color is ocherous brown, sharply contrasting with grayish or buffy on the outer side of forelimbs; flanks are paler. Underparts are pale silvery to pale ocherous orange. The cap is dark to very dark brown (bistre), and the tail is brown like the back, paler toward the tip. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Wet lowland terra firma and seasonally inundated forests in the upper Amazon Basin, extending to montane forests on western slopes of the Andes at elevations up to 2000 m. At Tiputini Biodiversity Station, Ecuador, where Maranon White-fronted Capuchins have been studied, annual rainfall is as high as 3274 mm, with an average of 273 mm/month. Seasonality is not marked, and no month has less than 100 mm ofrain. Nevertheless, there is a relatively dry season in July-November, and fruit abundance is lowest in May-December and highest inJanuary-April. Maranon White-fronted Capuchins usually occupy middle to upper canopies but sometimes forage on the ground.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. Diet of Maranon White-fronted Capuchins includes fruits, flowers, seeds, insects and other arthropods, bird eggs, and small vertebrates. In a study at Tiputini by L. Matthews a group spent ¢.10% of their day feeding on fruits and 54% foraging for animal prey.</p>
            <p>Breeding. Births of Maranon White-fronted Capuchins have been recorded in September-March in Peru and in November—January at Tiputini.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. During a one-year study of a group of Maranon White-fronted Capuchins at Tiputini, the daily activity budget was foraging for animal prey 54%, traveling 25%, feeding on fruit 10%, resting 5%, and social and other activities 6%. They slept in the upper canopy along branches covered by lianas or between fronds of Scheelea or  Mauritia palms (  Arecaceae ). </p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. In Ecuador, groups of Maranon White-fronted Capuchins contain 5-35 individuals, with several adult males and females. A group studied on the north bank of the Rio Tiputini had one adult male, two adult females, one subadult female, two juveniles, and two infants. The group’s home range was 240 ha, and it overlapped extensively with other groups. When groups encounter each other (on average one encounter about every four days), females and juveniles flee. Males give loud, high-pitched “yah” calls, also referred to as screams, and encounters are always aggressive, on occasion involving fights among males of the different groups. Individuals also utter loud “yah” calls when they are separated from their group. Maranon White-fronted Capuchins form mixed-species groups with Ecuadorian Squirrel Monkeys (  Saimiri macrodon ). </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The Maranon White-fronted Capuchin has not been assessed on The IUCN Red List, but it is considered near threatened in Ecuador and vulnerable in Peru. In both countries,it is heavily hunted and is extirpated rapidly around human settlements. It can otherwise be found in high numbers in, for example, Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru. It is also protected in Sangay, Sumaco Napo-Galeras, and Yasuni national parks, Cayambe-Coca and Cofan-Bermejo ecological reserves, and Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve in Ecuador.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Matthews (2009), Tirira (2007).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B73428460800FE3F3E6FF4DB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73428450804F43B3EE8F844.text	560F8786B73428450804F43B3EE8F844.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus cuscinus (Thomas 1901)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>17.</p>
            <p>Shock-headed Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus cuscinus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou ébouriffé / German: Peru-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino palido</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus flavescens cuscinus Thomas, 1901 , </p>
            <p> Callanga, Rio Pinipini, upper Rio Madre de Dios, Cuzco, Peru.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. Poorly known, but it is believed to extend from the S (right) bank of the upper reaches of the Rio Purus in SE Peru, W into the Rio Urubamba Valley in the Cuzco Department, including the upper Rio Madre de Dios, S and E as far the Tambopata Basin, and extending into NW Bolivia.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 40 cm (males) and 39-46 cm (females), tail 44 cm (males) and 39-47.5 cm (females); weight 2.8-3 kg. The Shock-headed Capuchin is similar to Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin (  C. unicolor ), but it has longer, silkier fur and is less brightly colored. Limbs are browner and contrast less with the back. The cap is large, distinct, and dark brown, and upper surface of the body is tawny-ocherous in the anterior parts and tawny toward the lower back. Lateral fringe and outer sides of upper arms are brown. The forearms are orangey-rufous on the outside, with wrists and hands darker. Outer thighs are like the rump, and shanks laterally are mixed orange-rufous. Surfaces of feet are brown to auburn. Underparts are ocherous-orange and silvery, becoming warm buff on the chest. There are whitish areas on the fronts of the shoulders and inner sides of the upper arms. The tail is cinnamon brown above, and brown below (a little paler toward the tip). The male has a broad pale frontal region sharply defining the dark brown cap, whereas the female has a dark brown frontal diadem continuous with the cap. </p>
            <p>Habitat. [Lowland terra firma and seasonally inundated forests in the upper Amazon Basin, to the western slopes of the Andes in montane forest at elevations up to 1800 m. Shock-headed Capuchins usually occupy the middle to upper canopy but sometimes forage on the ground.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Shock-headed Capuchins in the Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve, Peru, have feeding habits and diet similar to the Large-headed Capuchin (  Sapajus macrocephalus ), but with some subtle and important differences in feeding strategies that allow sympatry, particularly during fruit shortages. Fruit and insects are the principal components the diet of Shock-headed Capuchins. Fruit comprises 99% of the plant part of the diet in the wet season (supplemented with pith and meristems) and 53% in the dry season. Seeds, particularly from palms, are also an important component of the diet in the dry season, and small quantities of pith, meristems, and petioles are eaten. Unlike Large-headed Capuchins, Shock-headed Capuchins can not break open  Astrocaryum palm nuts to eat the endosperm—useful in the dry season when fruit is scarce. In the dry season, Shock-headed Capuchins spend hours searching through fallen bunches of palm fruits looking for those that have been attacked by bruchid beetles (subsequentto falling to the ground) but that still contain some endosperm. They smell and shake the nuts to gauge whether they still contain sufficient endosperm to make opening them worthwhile. Those they deem worthy are taken into a tree to bang them against a branch, or two nuts against each other, to open them and scrape out the hardened albumen with their teeth and fingernails. This is a prolonged process, and they spend longer time (sometimes more than two hours in a day), for less reward, than Large-headed Capuchins that spend c.45 minutes a day breaking open intact fruits from trees. To complement their dry-season diet, groups of Shock-headed Capuchins travel through much larger home ranges (more than 150 ha) than Largeheaded Capuchins to find other and large fruits crops, particularly those from widely scattered fig trees (  Ficus ,  Moraceae ). In the early dry season, Shock-headed Capuchins spend 56% of their feeding time on palm fruits and 41% of their feeding time on figs. Sympatric Large-headed Capuchins, in contrast, spend 64% their feeding time on palms and only 9% on figs. Shock-headed Capuchins are less destructive while foraging for animal prey and spend more time searching in litter, leaves, and tangles of lianas and much less time in palms than is typical of Large-headed Capuchins. The composition of the animal part of the diet is otherwise very similar between the two capuchins; both concentrate heavily on Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Female Shock-headed Capuchins solicit males intermittently when they are receptive, and although there is a distinct hierarchy, mating is not restricted to the most dominant male. Males take an active interest in the sexual condition of females, often sniffing their urine, evidently to see if they are in a periovulatory stage and receptive. They try to mount females even when they are not receptive.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. The annual activity budget of Shock-headed Capuchins in Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve is foraging and feeding on insects 39%, feeding on plant material 22%, traveling 21%, resting 12%, and 6% in miscellaneous activities (e.g. grooming, play, and territorial behavior), with little seasonal change. In the early dry season, time spent eating fruits tends to be longer because of the long time they spend working on  Astrocaryum nuts. They spend more time eating fruit in the morning, and foraging for animal prey increases gradually during the day and especially after resting at ¢.11:00 h. They also tend to eat fruit late in the afternoon before retiring. </p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of Shock-headed Capuchins are multimale-multifemale and average c.15 individuals. The sex ratio is about even (1:1). They use large home ranges of more than 150 ha, spending time in any areas with fruit trees until their fruits are depleted. They may travel 1500-2200 m/day. Their ranging is nomadic, and there is no evidence of the use of a core area. Although home ranges of different groups overlap, Shock-headed Capuchins are quite territorial. Usually they move away in different directions when they perceive another group’s presence up to 100 m away. When encounters do happen, there is considerable cooperation among group members. They vocalize loudly, and dominant males come together and all group members confront the opposing group with aggressive displays and sometimes chases. This is not typical of  Sapajus or  Saimiri , which are considerably more tolerant of other groups. Because of relatively large home ranges of Shock-headed Capuchins, groups have access to many more fruiting trees of any particular species over a wider area of forest than is the case for sympatric  Sapajus that has home ranges about one-third the size (¢.80 ha). Therefore, the diversity of the diets of Shock-headed Capuchinsis lower, but an important aspect of their wider ranging is that they are able to exploit larger fruit crops in large-canopied trees (e.g. figs) more than Large-headed Capuchins, which use smaller-canopied trees (e.g. palms). About 40% offruit feeding by Shock-headed Capuchins is in trees with crown diameters of 20-50 m compared to 12% by the Largeheaded Capuchins. The Shock-headed Capuchin lives in larger groups than  Sapajus , multimale rather than single-male, and the males are philopatric and  form coalitions to defend their groups. Aggressive interactions between males are less frequent than in  Sapajus and males associate together more than do the females or any other age class. Males are more aggressive to females, and females are more aggressive to each other. Although an adult  Sapajus male is more robust and stronger than a male  Cebus , two  Cebus males are able to challenge and displace a tufted capuchin male from a food source.  Cebus groups are dominant as such to  Sapajus groups by outnumbering them. Shockheaded capuchins often travel with squirrel monkeys (  Saimiri boliviensis ) and the groups often intermingle. Individuals can feed close together and only occasional antagonistic interactions and displacements occur (mostly in smaller-crowned fruiting trees). In the late afternoon, the two groups separate to different sleeping sites but rejoin in the morning. Squirrel monkeys generally travel in front of the  Cebus groups. Predators of Shock-headed Capuchins include the larger raptors (Harpia, Morphnus, Spizaetus, and Spizastur), felids, the Tayra (Eira barbara), and snakes. Whereas a dominant male  Sapajus is vigilant for aerial predators on behalf of his group (barking a warning), the dominant male  Cebus hideslike any other group member. Adult males, however, do mob ground predators, giving silent threat displays. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (as  C. albifrons cuscinus ). Distribution of the Shock-headed Capuchin is not really known, and recent phylogenetic studies of the genus  Cebus have highlighted the dearth of information regarding distributions of what may prove to be a number of distinct species in the southern Amazon Basin. The supposed distribution of the Shock-headed Capuchin in northern Bolivia, south-eastern Peru, and possibly the far south-western Brazilian Amazon Basin (Acre State) is relatively small, and development and colonization in some areas have resulted in considerable forest loss and hunting. Its hypothetical distribution includes some major protected areas such as Manu National Park and Biosphere Reserve in Peru and Madidi National Park and Manuripi-Heath National Reserve in Bolivia. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Aquino &amp; Encarnacion (1994b), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hill (1960), Janson (1986), Peres (1991c¢), Terborgh (1983).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B73428450804F43B3EE8F844	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B737284508F0F7D5398DFC83.text	560F8786B737284508F0F7D5398DFC83.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus unicolor Spix 1823	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>18.</p>
            <p>Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus unicolor</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou unicolore / German: Spix-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Spix</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus unicolor Spix, 1823 , </p>
            <p> Forests of the Rio Tefé, near its confluence with the Rio Solimoes, Amazonas, Brazil.</p>
            <p> Although T. Defler and J. Hernandez-Camacho in 2002 argued that  C. unicolor was ajunior synonym of  C. albifrons , independent genetic studies by M. Ruiz-Garcia and J. Boubli and their coworkers showed that white-fronted capuchins south of Rio Amazonas-Solimoes are distinct. Morphological and genetic diversity of white fronted capuchins in the south-central Amazon Basin is yet to be investigated. Monotypic. </p>
            <p> Distribution. Wide ranging in the upper Brazilian Amazon Basin, S of the Rio Solimoes-Amazonas, W from the Rio Tapajos, through the N of the states of Mato Grosso and Rondonia (at least to 10° S), and the Madeira, Purus, Jurua, and Javari basins to the Rio Ucayali in E Peru. White-fronted capuchins occur in northern Bolivia, S at least to the middle reaches of the Beni and Mamoré in the departments of Pando, Beni, and La Paz, and they are presumed to be Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin. Nevertheless, where distributions of Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin and the Shock-headed Capuchin (  C. cuscinus ) of the upper Purus and SE Peru meetis not known. </p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 36.5-37.5 cm, tail 42-46 cm. No specific data are available for body weight. Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin is uniformly bright ocher or grayish-brown (flanks grayer and mid-back darker brown), with a yellowish or creamy-fawn front and reddish-yellow or reddish limbs and tail. The crown is nearly black and ends just behind the brows. There is no white on the front of the shoulders.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Lowland terra firma and seasonally inundated forest (varzea) and forest patches in Amazonian savannas.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of Spix’s White-fronted Capuchins undoubtedly contains fruits and invertebrate prey. They are particularly partial to mesocarp of fruits from  Astrocaryum vulgare and Maximiliana (=  Attalea ) maripa (  Arecaceae ). </p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Groups of 12-16 Spix’s White-fronted Capuchins have been seen near the Rio Aripuana in the northern Mato Grosso State, Brazil. Population surveys at various sites in the Rio Jurua Basin by C. A. Peres suggested high densities of Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin in four varzea forests: 12-2 ind/km?, 40-1 ind/km?, 44-7 ind/km?, and 48-6 ind/km?. Densities were 4-1— 16-8 ind/km” in eleven terra firma forest sites. On Barro Vermelho Island, densities were 33-1 ind/km? in terra firma forest and 44-7 ind/km? in neighboring varzea forest.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [IUCN Red List (as ajunior synonym of C. a.  albifrons ). Although Spix’s White-fronted Capuchin is hunted for food,it has a large range in the western Amazon Basin, south of the Rio Amazonas-Soliomoes, and there is no reason to believe thatit is threatened. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boubli et al. (2012), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Peres (1997a), Ruiz-Garcia, Castillo et al. (2010).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B737284508F0F7D5398DFC83	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73728440DFDFC143EEEF726.text	560F8786B73728440DFDFC143EEEF726.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus albifrons (Humboldt 1812)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>19.</p>
            <p>Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus albifrons</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou a front blanc / German: Weilstirn-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de frente blanca</p>
            <p>Other common names: \ White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia albifrons Humboldt, 1812 , </p>
            <p> Venezuela, forests near Santa Barbara and the cataracts of the Rio Orinoco, Amazonas.</p>
            <p> C. albifrons as used here is a poorly defined species. It is known for sure only from a small region around the type locality, but P. Hershkovitz’s review in 1949 indicated that all white-fronted capuchins should be classified as its subspecies, including the form wunicolor believed by him to occupy the majority of the Amazonian distribution of  C. albifrons , both north and south of the Amazon River. There is no holotype specimen; the original description is believed to have been based on a pet seen in a hut. A review by T. Defler and J. Hernandez Camacho in 2002 designated a neotype and argued that  unicolor was ajunior synonym. The molecular genetic study byJ. Boubli and colleagues in 2012, however, showed that white-fronted capuchins south of the Amazon were quite distinct from those to the north. The  form unicolor was accordingly resurrected for the gracile/untufted capuchins to the south of the river, and those to the north, by default, continue to be called  albifrons . Nevertheless, the strong possibility remains that there are more taxa of gracile capuchins north of the Amazon (and to the south), which have yet to be identified. Intermediates between  C. albifrons and  C. capucinus occur in the middle San Jorge Valley, lower Rio Cauca, Colombia. Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. Wide ranging in the upper Amazon Basin of S Venezuela (Federal Terrritory of Amazonas), S &amp; E Colombia (Colombian Amazon region, N of the rios Amazonas and Ica-Putumayo, and patchily occurring in the E lowlands W of the Orinoco, N as far as the lower Rio Meta), and NW Brazil (N of the Solimoes, W from the rios Negro and Branco, as far N as the Rio Uraricoera); it would seem that it is absent in the Colombian Amazon Basin from the middle and upper rios Meta and Vichada and from the N bank of the upper Rio Guaviare.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 37-5 cm (males) and 36.5-37.5 cm (females), tail 42-5 cm (males) and 41-46 cm (females) for specimens from the rios Negro and Cassiquiare. Measurements of two young males, designated and described as the neotype and topotype by T. Defler and J. Hernandez-Camacho in 1992 were: neotype headbody 38-5 cm,tail 43 cm, weight 2-6 kg, and topotype head—body 36-5 cm, tail 42-5 cm, weight 2-1 kg. An adult female topotype: head-body 33-8 cm, tail 41-2 cm; and weight 2-3 kg. The body of Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin is overall a pale grayishbrown, darker on limbs. Hands and feet are a yellowish brown. The tail is ashy above, whitish below, and brownish black toward the tip. The frontis creamy, and there is a cap of short dark fur on the crown that is rounded in the front and well demarcated from the light forehead. The face is naked and pink.</p>
            <p> Habitat. Primary and some secondary deciduous, gallery, mangrove, and flooded forest, as well as high-elevation forest to 2000 m. Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin seems to prefer less disturbed, moister forest than other capuchins. It occupies semideciduous forest patches, seasonally inundated forests, and gallery forest in the Eastern Llanos of Colombia in the northern part ofits distribution. The Guianan Brown Capuchin (  Sapajus apella ) is also found in this region, but the two are generally parapatric. Much of the distribution of Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin covers the sclerophytic, small-leaved, white-sand forests (“caatinga alta” or “campinarana”) and scrub (“caatinga baixa” or “campina”) typical of the Rio Negro Basin, butit is not known to what extent they occupy them. T. Defler studied a population in El Tuparro National Natural Park, south of the Rio Tomo (tributary of the Rio Orinoco) in the Eastern Llanos of Colombia. There were distinct seasons: a wet season in May—-October when low-lying savannas and gallery forest were extensively flooded and a dry season in November-April. Semi-deciduous forests, 20-25 m high, on granitic hills with shallow and gravelly soils did not flood. Annual rainfall was ¢.2100 mm. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. At El Tuparro National Natural Park, Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchins spent 80% oftheir feeding time eating fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves, stems, and flowers and 20% eating animal prey, including insects (adults, larva, and pupae), spiders and other invertebrates,tree frogs,lizards, and honey of melipone bees. Crowns are favored sites for foraging for animal prey. Palms (  Arecaceae ) are an abundant important food source for Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchins. They eat mesocarp and endosperm offruits ofsix species including  Attalea regia, Jessenia polycarpa,  Mauritia [flexuosa,  Syagrus orinocensis, and  Bactris . Other species supplying fruits include  Oxandra espintana (  Annonaceae ),  Goupia glabra (  Goupiaceae ),  Ficus (Moracae) ,  Passiflora (Passifloraceae) ,  Inga and  Dipteryx (Fabaceae) . The group at El Tuparro often traveled and foraged on the ground, picking up fallen fruits, eating fruits of terrestrial bromeliads (Ananas comosus, Bromelia), and foraging for insects in leaflitter. They used well worn trails on the ground to travel between forest patches. Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchins drink water from tree holes, reservoirs in the tightly packed foliage of  Phenakospermum (Strelitziaceae) , and pools on the ground. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Female Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchins have a 16-20day reproductive cycle. Breeding occurs throughout the year, but in the highly seasonal Llanos, there is a birth peak in the late dry and early wet season. A female gives birth to a single young after gestation of 162-180 days. Males share in the care of offspring. Individuals have been known to live for up to 44 years.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchins become active a little after 05:00 h. They feed and forage until midday when they rest for 1-3 hours. When foraging for animal prey, a group can be spread over an area 250 m wide. In the afternoon, they resume foraging until 16:00-16:30 h when they return to a sleeping site and rest, play, and groom until they enter sleeping trees a little before dusk. They sleep in crowns of  Attalea regia palms, 25-30 m above the ground. </p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. The group of Humboldt’s Whitefronted Capuchins studied by Defler numbered 35 individuals, with four adult males, ten adult females, along with subadults and juveniles. Its home range was 110-120 ha, and it traveled 4-5 km each day. About 20% of the home range overlapped with that of another group. Group interactions are tense and aggressive. The males give “yah” vocalizations and chase the males in the opposing group. Males form a dominance hierarchy, and the alpha male is the most vigilant and active in defending the group against predators and other groups. Males are very tolerant of infants and juveniles, often carrying them and rescuing them in situations of alarm. Predators include the black-and-white hawk eagle (Spizastur melanoleucus), the ornate hawk-eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and the Tayra (Eira barbara). A harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was seen taking a Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin in Jat National Park, Brazil. Population surveys in three terra firma forests of south-eastern Colombia in the basins of the rios Apaporis and Caqueta, where hunting is minimal or entirely lacking, suggested naturally low densities of 0-02-0-4 groups/km? and 1:8-3-6 ind/km?.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. Humboldt’s White-fronted Capuchin is hunted, butit is widespread and occurs in numerous large protected areas in the Venezuelan, Colombian, and Brazilian Amazon Basin. Much ofits distribution is in the western part of the Guiana Shield, with typically nutrient poor soils and forest, including large expanses of white-sand forests and scrub in the Rio Negro Basin. It occurs in numerous protected areas includingJaa and Pico da Neblina national parks in Brazil; Amacayacu, Cahuinari, El Tuparro, La Paya, Serrania de Chiribiquete, and Sierra de la Macarena national natural parks and Nukak and Puinawai national natural reserves in Colombia; and Jaua-Sarisarinama, Parima Tapirapeco, Serrania de la Neblina, and Yapacana national parks in Venezuela.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Barnett et al. (2011), Defler (1979a, 1979b, 1980, 1982, 1985, 2003b, 2004), Defler &amp; Hernandez-Camacho (2002), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949), Palacios &amp; Peres (2005).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B73728440DFDFC143EEEF726	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B7362843080CF7743A0FF390.text	560F8786B7362843080CF7743A0FF390.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus olivaceus Schomburgk 1848	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>20.</p>
            <p>Guianan Weeper Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus olivaceus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou pleureur / German: Brauner Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino oliva</p>
            <p>Other common names: \Wedge-capped Capuchin; Chestnut Weeper Capuchin (castaneus), Weeper Capuchin (olivaceus)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus olivaceus Schomburgk, 1848 , </p>
            <p> Venezuela, southern foot of Mount Roraima, Bolivar State, (c.4° 57° N, 61° 01° W), Venezuela, elevations 3100 feet (945 m).</p>
            <p> P. Hershkovitz in 1949 listed five forms that he “provisionally recognized” as subspecies of a monotypic weeper capuchin,  C. nigrivittatus , named by Wagner in 1848. Although the name nigrvittatus was used for the Guianan Weeper Capuchin through the 1970s,J. G. Robinson pointed out that in 1941 B. von Pusch combined  Saimiri and  Cebus , resulting in  nigrivittatus being a secondary homonym due to the prior description of the squirrel monkey  Chrysothrix nigrivittatta by Wagner in 1848 (a junior synonym of  Saimiri sciureus ). The name for the Guianan Weeper Capuchin thus became C.  olivaceus . C. P. Groves in 2001 did not consider any of the subspecies valid and concluded that C.  olivaceus was monotypic. A phylogenetic analysis of C.  olivaceus byJ. Boubli and co-workers in 2012 largely confirmed the conclusion of Groves, except for one specimen from Guyana that could be distinguished as a distinct taxon;it diverged from the C.  olivaceus ¢.700,000 years ago. This was ascribed to castaneus as listed by Hershkovitz in 1949. Its type locality is Cayenne, French Guiana, and it was considered to be the weeper capuchin of Guyana by G. Tate in 1939. Only one specimen was included in the analysis, but with further samples, castaneus may prove to be a distinct species. Two subspecies recognized. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> C.o.olivaceusSchomburgk,1848—mightberestrictedtotheVenezuelanAmazonBasinfromtheupperRioOrinoco,andthroughouttheOrinocosavannaabovethemouthoftheRioMeta,asfarNandWastheSierradePerijaandtheVenezuelanC.o.dela C.o. (C.o. Range), to the left bank of the Rio Essequibo in W Guyana, in forests of the Guiana Shield; distributional limits separating the two subspecies are not well known.  C. o. castaneus 1. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1851 — Guianas (possibly from the Rio Essequibo in Guyana E through Suriname and French Guiana) and N Brazil, where its distributional limits are not well known but are possibly marked by the rios Negro and Branco and Catrimani (right bank affluent of the Rio Branco) in the W, the Rio Amazonas in the S, and the Atlantic coast in the E, and it also occurs on Caviana and Mexiana Is in the estuary of the Rio Amazonas. </p>
            <p>Small numbers introduced as pets are now feral on Margarita I off the Venezuelan coast.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 37-46 cm, tail 45-55 cm; weight 3.4-2 kg (males) and 2.3-3 kg (females). Male Guianan Weeper Capuchins are ¢.19-5% larger than females. It is a large, heavy-set, gracile/untufted species with long limbs and relatively coarse, shaggy fur. Pelage is brown with black-agouti banding on flanks, limbs, and tail. Hands, feet, and tailtip tend to be darkened. Underside tends to be dark. Lighter areas are light gray-brown,restricted to face and forehead and setting off a dark brown, sharp, Vshaped crown cap; the point of the “V” is connected to a thin umber stripe that runs down the center of the face to the nose. The face is naked and normally pink. The “Weeper Capuchin” (C. o.  olivaceus ) is mainly dark brown or reddish with black on the extremities and buffy-white cheeks. In the “Chestnut Weeper Capuchin” (C. o. castaneus), the black triangle on the crown is narrow, and the rest of the head is yellowish-white but more reddishchestnut above the ear and nape. Upperparts of the body and limbs are reddish chestnut, and shoulders and fronts of arms above the elbows are pale yellow. Hands and feet are blackish. The tail is blackish brown with gray tipped hairs on the dorsal surface. </p>
            <p> Habitat. Primary rainforest, evergreen, and gallery forest from sea level to 2000 m; rarely in dry deciduous forest and shrub woodland. All levels of the forest are used by the Guianan Weeper Capuchin, although the middle and understory are preferred. Groups occasionally forage and play on the ground. In Suriname, the Chestnut Weeper Capuchin is almost entirely restricted to the interior, and like bearded sakis (  Chiropotes ) and spider monkeys (  Ateles ), it just enters the old coastal plain in a small part of western Suriname. Whereas the Guianan Brown Capuchin (  Sapajus apella ) is more of a habitat generalist in the Guianas, the Chestnut Weeper Capuchin is mostly restricted to high terra firma rainforest and is rarely or never seen in liana forest, pina (  Euterpe ) forest, and mountain savanna forest. An important study site for the Weeper Capuchin is Hato Masaguaral, a cattle ranch in the Llanos (savanna plains) of central Venezuela, a mosaic of grassland, palm savanna, shrub woodland, and gallery forest. The forest there is seasonal semi-deciduous dry forest, with annual rainfall of ¢.1450 mm, most of which falls during the wet season (May-October). Weeper Capuchins have also been studied at Hato Pinero 60 km south of Hato Masaguaral. Although physiognomically similar, the floristic composition of forests at each site is very different. Only 34 of 116 tree species occur at bothsites, and those that are shared occur in very different densities. Of 79 tree species in the diet of Weeper Capuchins, only 15 (19%) are eaten at both Masaguaral and Pinero. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. In a detailed study of the diet of Weeper Capuchins at Hato Masaguaral by Robinson in the late 1970s, plant material accounted for 55% of all feeding records and animal prey 33% (in 12% ofthe records the food item was not identified). Fruit, largely fleshy and mostly ripe, was the main item of plant origin (46%) from more than 50 species in 30 families, the most important  Rubiaceae and  Moraceae . Fig trees (  Ficus pertusa and FE. trigonata,  Moraceae ) produce fruit asynchronously and were a staple in most months of the year. Large seeds were not ingested, but most small ones were, and were defecated intact. Seeds of  Coccoloba (Polygonaceae) and  Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae) were chewed and crushed. Weeper Capuchins sometimes ate grass seeds. In the middle of the dry season (March-April), palm fruits (  Copernicia ,  Arecaceae ) were picked unripe and eaten while the seed wasstill soft. Hard fruits such as those of  Sterculia apetala (  Sterculiaceae ) and  Hymenaea courbaril (  Fabaceae ) were pounded to open them. They also ate buds,leaves, and shoots but mostly just chewed them and then spat out the fibrous material, perhaps mainly to get water. This was common in the dry season and included rachis (central stem) of  Copernicia fronds. When rachis of young fronds first appeared in the crown, Weeper Capuchins would ingest them, but older fronds were chewed and spat out. Flowers were rarely eaten, but those of the epiphytic cactus Hylocereus polyrhizus were favored. Large male Weeper Capuchins, in particular, sometimes pulled up sapling Cochlospermum vitifolium (  Bixaceae ) and ate the roots. Weeper Capuchins eat freshwater snails (Pomacea), arthropods (spiders, cockroaches, mantids, stick insects, termites, grasshoppers, cicadas, scale insects, caterpillars, beetle grubs, ants, especially Cephalotes, and millipedes), frogs, frog eggs, iguanas, birds (including nestlings and eggs), and Red-tailed Squirrels (Sciurus granatensis) when they can catch them. They search for prey in litter, palm crowns, green and dried palm fronds, along branches, dead wood, and green and dead leaves. They also prey on wasp nests and eat larvae, pupae, and adults. Bird eggs eaten included those of rufous-vented chachalaca (Ortalis ruficauda), green ibis (Mesembrinibis cayennensis), red-legged tinamou (Crypturellus erythropus), white-tipped dove (Leptotila verreauxi), greater ani (Crotophaga major), and hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin). They eat nestling doves and, at least, adult ruddy ground-doves (  Columbina talpacoti ). Fruits are most abundant in the wet season. In the dry season, they eat fewerfruits and more invertebrates, along with alternatives such as roots. In the dry season, hard fruits of  Guazuma tomentosa (  Sterculiaceae ) are important, and they forage more on the ground, taking Pomacea freshwater snails and tettigoniid grasshoppers in the leaf litter. A leaf flush occurs with the first heavy rains of the wet season, and phytophagous caterpillars become abundant prey at that time. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Female Guianan Weeper Capuchins have a 16-20day reproductive cycle. Births occur throughout the year but peak in May-June. Eyebrow raising is absent from the proceptive female’s repertoire, but partners grin and gaze at each other and tilt their heads. There is also the dance of the female running around the male, touching him, and running away. A female producesa single offspring about every two years, after a gestation of 149-158 days. Infanticide has been reported, although males are generally tolerant of young and will often play with them. Female Guianan Weeper Capuchins are sexually mature at 4-7 years old, and males mature about a year after that (although full adult size is not reached until c.15 years old). Births are most common at the end of the dry season and early wet season. Infants are entirely dependent on adults until they are about four months old. At 4-12 months old, they gradually become more independent. They are considered juveniles at twelve months, although they continue nursing sporadically for another six months.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Overall, Guianan Weeper Capuchins spend almost 70% of their day foraging (c.22% catching and eating animals, 17% eating plant material, the rest searching for, extracting, and processing food items). Traveling takes up ¢.22% oftheir day, and resting and social behavior take up the remaining 8%. Males tend to rest more, and females tend to engage more in social activities. In the last month of the dry season, they spend ¢.58% of their day foraging and 19% traveling, but in the first months of the rainy season, they spend 43% of the day foraging and 17% traveling. They play and socialize much less in the dry season (6%) than in the wet season (20%). In the Llanos, groups of Guianan Weeper Capuchins leave their sleeping sites often in the dark and always before sunrise, and move rapidly to feeding sites, especially fruiting trees. They forage throughout the day, but less around midday, particularly in the hot dry season. In the dry season, foraging declines after c.10:30 h and increases again after c.14:30 h and particularly in the late afternoon before retiring to their sleeping sites. Much of their foraging is done on the ground. Males spend more time lower in trees and foraging on the ground than females. Adult and subadult males spend as much as 34% of their day on the ground, whereas adult and subadult females limit their time on the ground to ¢.10%, spending more time in the trees at heights of 5-10 m.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Guianan Weeper Capuchins average c¢.20 individuals but can be as large as 36 individuals, with the most skewed sex ratios of any of the capuchins (c.1 male:2 females). A group of ¢.20 Weeper Capuchins studied in the Llanos at Hato Masguaral in the late 1970s was composed of a single adult male, two subadult males, and 6-8 adult females, along with juveniles and infants. As a ripe-fruit specialist, their annual home range was large, up to 275 ha, and the group traveled 1046-3580 m/day, averaging 2141 m/day. When foraging for animal prey, a group is considerably spread out, over as much 150 m. Males disperse, sometimes as early as two years old but generally between three and six years old. Solitary males are rarely seen and only for a short period. Males may transfer between groups more than once. Low-ranking and old females may disperse, but they most often stay in their natal groups. Males and females have separate dominance hierarchies, with the alpha female ranking immediately below the alpha male. Home ranges of neighboring groups overlap, but groups generally avoid each other when their paths cross, except when in a fruiting tree. Larger groups displace smaller groups at fruiting trees, and this is seen as a crucial advantage at times of food shortage (dry season) and a reason why reproductive success of the females is higher in large groups than small groups. Females in large groups have a quite constant food intake during the year, but those in smaller groups have a high food intake in the wet season but very low intake when food is scarce in the dry season. Males also have better reproductive success in large groups because they have longer tenure and access to more females. With more subordinate and subadult males in a group, they are lesslikely to suffer aggressive takeovers by males from other groups, which not only ends (at least temporarily) the resident alpha male’s breeding career but also results in episodes of infanticide by incoming males, damaging the reproductive success of the females and the pastresident breeding male. Males remaining as subordinates in large groups have the advantage of a potentially rewarding tenure as dominant male, although his time as dominant will probably be shorter than it would be in a smaller group. An effect of group size on female fecundity has been shown at Hato Masaguaral and Hato Pinero. L. E. Miller, who studied Guianan Weeper Capuchins at Hato Pinero, argued that females in larger groups benefit from the group’s ability to commandeer the major fruiting trees in the dry season, and they also spend more time on the ground because of the higher overall vigilance, which is beneficial for their foraging rate when food is scarce. Females in smaller groups have less competition for food within the group but suffer more from a higher predation risk. They spend more time higher in the forest and much less time on the ground than females in larger groups, which is evidently detrimental to their feeding rate.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Chestnut Weeper Capuchin has not been assessed independently. The Guianan Weeper Capuchin is hunted for meat in some areas and is generally less common than the sympatric Guianan Brown Capuchin. The Guianan Weeper Capuchin occurs in numerous large protected areas in the northern Amazon Basin.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Bodini (1989), Bodini &amp; Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Boubli et al. (2012), De Ruiter (1986), Fernandes et al. (1995), Fragaszy (1986, 1990), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Groves (2001), Hershkovitz (1949, 1955), Miller (1991, 1998a, 1998b, 2002a), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Mittermeier &amp; van Roosmalen (1981), Oppenheimer &amp; Oppenheimer (1973), von Pusch (1941), Robinson (1981, 1984a, 1986, 1988a, 1988b), Tate (1939), Valderrama et al. (1990).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B7362843080CF7743A0FF390	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B731284308F0F3FC39A0F7C1.text	560F8786B731284308F0F3FC39A0F7C1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus kaapori Queiroz 1992	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>21.</p>
            <p>Ka’apor Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus kaapori</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou de Ka'apor / German: Ka'apor-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Ka'apor</p>
            <p>Other common names: Kaapori Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus kaapori Queiroz, 1992 , </p>
            <p> Quadrant 7-1 km south-west of the Chaga-Tudo Prospection, Carutapera, near right bank of Rio Gurupi, Maranhao, Brazil (0° 30’ S, 47° 30° W).</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. NE Brazil (NE Para and NW Maranhao states); the precise distribution is unknown but is suspected to include an area of at least 15,000 km? from the Rio Tocantins in Para to the right bank of the Rio Grajau in Maranhao.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head—body 37-46 cm, tail 40-55 cm; weight 3 kg (males) and 2-4 kg (females). The Ka’apor Capuchin is a gracile/untufted species with a long body compared with other species of  Cebus . It is a grayish agouti brown, lighter on flanks. The face, shoulders, mantle, and tip of the tail are silvery-gray, limbs are agouti, and hands and feet are dark brown or black. The crown has a triangular black cap that extends to a dark stripe down the nose. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Tall lowland terra firma forest below 200 m above sea level. The Ka’apor Capuchin has not been recorded in seasonally inundated forest or secondary forest. In Maranhao, its supposed distribution along the Rio Grajau indicates that it occurs in babassu palm (Orbignya) forest transitioning to the cerrado (bush savanna) of central Brazil.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is so specific information available for this species, but the diet undoubtedly includes fruits, seeds, and insects.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Ka’apor Capuchin is generally seen in small groups of 1-7 individuals and sometimes with groups of Black Bearded Sakis (  Chiropotes satanas). No studies ofits behavior and ecology have been published. </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Ka’apor Capuchin is threatened by habitat loss and hunting. It is restricted to an area believed to be no more than 15,000 km* in the most densely populated region in the Brazilian Amazon Basin where more than 50% of the forest has been logged, clear-cut, and converted to farmland and pasture. Deforestation continues, and most of the remaining forests now comprise isolated, usually hunted and degraded patches on farmland. There are three indigenous areas in its distribution: Awa Indigenous Area (65,000 ha) and the Indian reservations of Alto Turiacu (530-5 ha) and Caru (175,000 ha). It is known to occur in two protected areas: Gurupi Biological Reserve and Lago de Tucurui Environmental Protection Area. A large part of the forest in Gurupi Biological Reserve has been logged and destroyed since its creation in 1988. A study by S. Ferrari and A. Lopes in 1996 found a density of 1 ind/km? in the Reserve. It would seem that the Ka’apor Capuchin is naturally rare; it is hunted and is susceptible to any, even light, disturbance, or degradation of its habitat. Its rarity may be related to competition with sympatric Guianan Brown Capuchins, and naturally low densities may come from the need for large home ranges.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Carvalho (2003), Carvalho et al. (1999), Cunha et al. (2007), Ferrari &amp; Lopes (1996), Ferrari &amp; Queiroz (1994), Groves (2001), Kierulff &amp; de Oliveira (2008), Lopes &amp; Ferrari (1996), Queiroz (1992), Silva (2001), Silva &amp; Cerqueira (1998).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B731284308F0F3FC39A0F7C1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73128420DFBF7533BAEFAA0.text	560F8786B73128420DFBF7533BAEFAA0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus brunneus (Allen 1914)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>22.</p>
            <p>Venezuelan Brown Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus brunneus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou d'Allen / German: Venezuela-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Venezuela</p>
            <p>Other common names: Brown Weeper Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus apella brunneus Allen, 1914 , </p>
            <p> Aroa (Pueblo Nuevo), station on the Bolivar Railway, Yaracuy, north-west ern Venezuela, elevation 730 feet (222 m).</p>
            <p> P. Hershkovitz in 1949 considered this form to be a subspecies of  C. nigrivittatus (=  olivaceus ). C. P. Groves placed it as a junior synonym of C.  olivaceus . The phylogenetic analysis carried out by J. Boubli and coworkers in 2012, however, found it to be a distinct species most closely related to C. leucocephalusjust to the west in extreme western Venezuela and north-eastern Colombia. The form  C. albifrons trinitatis named by von Pusch in 1941 from the island of Trinidad is genetically indistinguishable from C.  brunneus . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. N Venezuela, E of the Sierra de Perija and along the Venezuelan Cordillera de la Costa (Coastal Range), also on E &amp; SE of Trinidad I, where possibly introduced (lowland moist forests of the Nariva Swamp, lowland forest E of the Central Range Mountains, and the Trinity Hills Mts).</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 42 cm, tail 44 cm, from type specimen. No specific data are available for body weight. Pelage of the Venezuelan Brown Capuchin is very thick and long. General color of upperparts of the type specimen is darker along the middle of the back than on the sides; hairs are dusky at their bases, passing gradually through a broad zone of chestnut into blackish with long hazel tips. The face and sides of the head are pale yellowish gray. The crown has a broad V-shaped patch of longish hairs, narrowing to a point in front, from which a narrow black line runs forward to the nose. The chin and lower part of the cheeks are whitish (clear grayish white or fulvous white in different specimens). Underparts are thinly haired, blackish brown, and tips of the hairs are hazel. The throat is lighter than the chest and belly. Upper arms from shoulders to elbows are pale yellowish (maize yellow) to the base of the hairs. Outer forearms have hairs that are blackish for most of their length, with long yellowish tips; inside forearms they are much darker. Hands are blackish. Hindlimbs are nearly like the upperparts but lighter on the outside of thighs. Hindfeet are nearly black. The tail is colored similarly to the back.</p>
            <p>Habitat. [Lowland moist, montane, and submontane forests along the central and eastern Cordillera de la Costa of northern Venezuela and dry semi-deciduous forest and gallery forests in the western Venezuelan Llanos.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no specific information available for this species, but Venezuelan Brown Capuchins on Trinidad have been seen to use leaves as cups to retrieve water from tree cavities.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List (as C.  olivaceus brunneus ). The Venezuelan Brown Capuchin is reported to be common. Protected areas within its distribution include Henri Pittier, El Avila, and Peninsula de Paria national parks in Venezuela, and if it is indeed the capuchin on Trinidad, very small populations are found in Bush Bush and Trinity Hills wildlife sanctuaries. Three groups totaling 31 individuals were recorded in Bush Bush and one group of twelve individuals was recorded in Trinity Hills in 1997 surveys. The population on Trinidad is classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red Last. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Agoramoorthy &amp; Hsu (1995), Allen (1914), Hill (1960), Bodini (1989), Bodini &amp; Pérez-Hernandez (1987), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Linares (1998), Phillips (1998), Phillips &amp; Abercrombie (2003).</p>
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560F8786B7302842083AF3DB39F2F9C2.text	560F8786B7302842083AF3DB39F2F9C2.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus cesarae Hershkovitz 1949	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>24.</p>
            <p>Rio Cesar White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus cesarae</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou du Cesar / German: Rio-Cesar-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino del César</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus cesarae Hershkovitz, 1949 , </p>
            <p> Rio Guaimaral, a channel of the Rio César Department of Magdalena, Colombia, elevation 140 m.</p>
            <p> Includes as a junior synonym the form  C. albifrons pleet named by Hershkovitz in 1949, which was described from swamplands of the western bank of the Rio Magdalena near the village of Norosi at the base of the northern extremity of the Cordillera Central, Mompos, Bolivar Department, Colombia, elevation ¢.50 m. Phylogenetic analysis of the white-fronted capuchins carried out by M. Ruiz-Garcia and coworkers in 2010 found pleei and  cesarae to be closely related. C. P. Groves placed the forms  cesarae and pleer as junior synonyms of  C. albifrons versicolor . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. N Colombia, in the Rio César Valley, W into S &amp; E slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the E part of the Magdalena Department, up to 500 m above sea level.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 34:8-40.7 cm (males) and 35.3-38.5 cm (females), tail 41:9-49.5 cm (males) and 46.1-50 cm (females). No specific data are available for body weight. The Rio Cesar White-fronted Capuchin is the palest of the northern Colombian and Venezuelan white-fronted capuchins. Hairs on sides of the face, superciliary band, chin, throat, sides of neck, and around the ears are cartridge buff. The cap is cinnamon or snuff brown-orangey. Middle of the back, forearms, and forelegs are orangey and contrasted with sides of back and trunk. Hairs of belly and chest are ocherous-orange to pale ocherous-buff and silvery, contrasting with the pale area on the front extending over variable amounts of upper surfaces of shoulders and the inner sides of upper arms. Uppersurface of the tail is frosted cinnamon-brown.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Dry semi-deciduous forest patches and gallery forest and mangroves in a region that is largely deforested.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red Lust (as  C. albifrons cesarae ). The Rio Cesar White-fronted Capuchin occurs in Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and Los Flamencos fauna and flora sanctuaries, and probably also in Macuira National Natural Park. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Defler (2003b, 2004), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949). Hill (1960), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981).</p>
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560F8786B7302842083AFAF03EF2F3B9.text	560F8786B7302842083AFAF03EF2F3B9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus leucocephalus Gray 1866	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>23.</p>
            <p>Sierra de Perija White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus leucocephalus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou a téte blanche / German: WeilRkopf-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Perija</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus leucocephalus Gray, 1866 , </p>
            <p> Colombia, restricted by P. Hershkovitz in 1949 to El Tambor, Rio Labrija, 25 km north-west of Bucaramanga, Santander, Colombia.</p>
            <p>The form from the eastern base of the Sierra de Perija (adustus) is paler, and the limbs are redder, more sharply contrasted with the trunk. Its taxonomic status and distribution are uncertain, however; it may be a variant of the Sierra de Perija White-fronted Capuchin or may be distinct. Monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. N Colombia (from the W slope of the Cordillera Oriental in the Santander Department, E through low passes to the Rio Zulia and Rio Catatumbo basins, Norte de Santander Department) and NW Venezuela (Zulia State).</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 37-40.7 cm (males), tail 39-2— 49-9 cm (males). No specific measurements are available for females or body weight. The Sierra de Perija White-fronted Capuchin is the darkest of the white-fronted capuchins. The cap is cinnamon brown to bistre. The back is cinnamon-brown mixed with tawny on the upper back and more russet on the lower back. Flanks are paler (snuff-brown). Uppersides of shoulders and lateral surfaces of upper arms are cinnamon brown. Outer sides of forearms are burnt sienna, grading into auburn. Lateral surfaces of thighs are cinnamon brown, and forelegs and fronts of thighs are burnt sienna. Wrists, ankles, and uppersurfaces of hands and feet are auburn. Hairs on the belly and lower part of the chest are burnt sienna, changing to orange-rufous on the upper chest and innersides of upper arms. The tail is cinnamon brown above, becoming paler toward the tip, and is a paler buffy underneath.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Lowland moist forest, semi-deciduous dry forest, and mangroves.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. The Sierra de Perija White-fronted Capuchin has not been assessed on The IUCN Red List. Ciénagas del Catatumbo and Sierra de Perija national parks in Venezuela and Tama National Natural Park in Colombia are within its distribution.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Defler (2003b, 2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949), Hill (1960).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B7302842083AFAF03EF2F3B9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73028420D00F9553916F434.text	560F8786B73028420D00F9553916F434.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus versicolor Pucheran 1845	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>25.</p>
            <p>Varied Whitefronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus versicolor</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou varié / German: Kolumbien-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino versicolor</p>
            <p>Other common names: Bogotd Monkey, Varied Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus versicolor Pucheran, 1845</p>
            <p> Santa Fé de Bogota, Colombia.</p>
            <p> C. P. Groves in 2001 placed  C. albifrons adustus, C. a.  cesarae , C. a.  malitiosus , C. a.  leucocephalus , and C. a. pleei as junior synonyms of  C. albifrons versicolor . Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. N Colombia in the middle Rio Magdalena except for the W slope of the Cordillera Oriental, from the S portion of the Magdalena Department S to the departments of Cundinamarca and Tolima.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 45-50.5 cm, tail 42-45.5 cm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Varied White-fronted Capuchin is darker than the Rio Cesar White-fronted Capuchin (  C. cesarae ). It is a rather pale form (extensions of the pale areas being fairly variable), with red tones on the mid-dorsal region and foreparts of limbs, generally contrasting with the rest of the body. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Lowland moist forest and palm swamps in the middle Rio Magdalena Valley.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  C. albifrons versicolor ). The Varied White-fronted Capuchin probably occurs in Catatumbo Bari National Natural Park. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Defler (2003b, 2004), Hershkovitz (1949), Hill (1960), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Hill (1960).</p>
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560F8786B73028410D02F4443BECFBBC.text	560F8786B73028410D02F4443BECFBBC.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus malitiosus Elliot 1909	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>26.</p>
            <p>Santa Marta White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus malitiosus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou des Santa Marta / German: Santa-Marta-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de Santa Marta</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus malitiosus Elliot, 1909 , </p>
            <p> vicinity of Bonda, north-west corner of base of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Magdalena, Colombia.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. N Colombia, known only from the NW base of Sierra de Santa Marta, but it may range throughout the lower W and N slopes of the Sierra Nevada.</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-Body 45-7 cm, tail 43-3 cm. No specific data are available for body weight. The cap of the Santa Marta White-fronted Capuchin is pale brown, and the back is cinnamon brown. Forearms and forelegs are not markedly contrasing in color with the back and sides of the body. Hairs on the belly and chest are ocherous tawny to cinnamon brown and silvery. There is a contrasting pale area of the front extending well over upper surfaces of the shoulders and inner sides of upper arms.</p>
            <p>Habitat. [.owland, submontane, and montane forest.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  C. albifrons malitiosus ). The Santa Marta White-fronted Capuchin occurs in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Tayrona national natural parks. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Defler (2003b, 2004), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hershkovitz (1949).</p>
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560F8786B733284108C5FBD83B30F232.text	560F8786B733284108C5FBD83B30F232.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus aequatorialis J. A. Allen 1914	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>27.</p>
            <p>Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus aequatorialis</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou d'Equateur / German: Ecuador-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino ecuatoriano</p>
            <p>Other common names: Ecuadorian Capuchin, Equatorial Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus aequatorialis |. A. Allen, 1914 , </p>
            <p> Rio del Oro, Manavi Province, near sea level, Ecuador.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. Ecuador lowlands W of the Andes (from the Rio Esmeraldas-Guayllabamba to the S) and NW Peru (Tumbes Department, the southernmost locality is the Cerros de Amotape National Park).</p>
            <p>Descriptive notes. Head-body 35-51 cm, tail 40-50 cm; weight 1.7-3.6 kg (males) and 1.2-2.2 kg (females). The upperparts of the Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchin, from the nape over the back, are pale cinnamon rufous, darker along the midline of the back. Front and sides of the head are a pale yellowish white, with a narrow black transverse line on the forehead forming the cap, from which a narrow median black line descends to the nose. An indistinct blackish line runs from the posterior border of the eye to the mouth. Outsides of limbs are similar in color to the body. Hands and feet are a little darker (more brownish) than the arms and legs, and the ventral surface is a little paler than flanks. The chest is lighter than the belly. Dorsal surface of the tail is dull wood-brown above, darker than the body, and undersurface of tail is much paler.</p>
            <p>Habitat. Dry forest in lowlands and including coastal areas to wet submontane Andean forest to elevations of 1100-2040 m. The Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchin evidently prefers tall, mature terra firma forest but also uses disturbed and degraded mixed secondary forest and cultivated areas.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchins eat fruits, insects, and other small animals. They eat tender bases of bromeliad leaves and fruits of  Vitex gigantea (  Lamiaceae ),  Spondias (Anacardiaceae) ,  Eugenia (Myrtaceae) ,  Ficus (Moraceae) , and Cecropra (  Urticaceae ). </p>
            <p>Breeding. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Surveys of the Ecuadorian Whitefronted Capuchin in 2002-2005 in western Ecuador, located eleven groups in five of eleven sites visited. three in the Cerro Blanco Forest Reserve, four in the Hacienda El Paraiso, two in Jauneche Biological Reserve Station, one in La Hesperia Biological Reserve and one in Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve. The groups ranged in size from five to 20 individuals (mean 13-9). There were generally more females in the group than males; the sex ratio was 0-8 male:1 female. The composition of six of the groups was: 1-6 adult males, 3-5 adult females, 2—4 subadult males, 2-6juveniles, and 1-2 infants. Densities were 2-22 ind/km?, with a median of 2-4 ind/km?®. Two groups in the Cerro Blanco Protected Forest had home ranges of 561 ha and 507 ha.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List (as  C. albifrons aequatorialis ). Forests in the western lowlands of Ecuador have been devastated over the last century, and the Ecuadorian White-fronted Capuchin is hunted and, in some areas, persecuted for crop-raiding (banana, corn, plantains, and cacao). It is known from 20 forests in Ecuador and Peru. It occurs in Bilsa Biological Station in Mache-Chindul National Park, Manglares Churute National Park, Cerro Blanco Forest Reserve, L.a Hesperia Biological Reserve, and Lalo Loor Dry Forest Reserve in Ecuador; and Cerros de Amotape National Park and Tumbes National Reserve in Peru. Hunting and deforestation continue, however, even in protected areas. Reports that it occurred in Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, north of the Rio Esmeraldas-Guayllabamba in Ecuador, are, it seems, unfounded, and it is believed that it disappeared from a 4000ha forest at Cabo Pasado, also in Ecuador, in 1998. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Albuja &amp; Arcos (2007), Allen (1914), Encarnacion &amp; Cook (1998), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Hill (1960), Jack &amp; Campos (2012), Parker &amp; Carr (1992), Tirira (2007).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B733284108C5FBD83B30F232	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73328410DC2FE83351FF5CF.text	560F8786B73328410DC2FE83351FF5CF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus capucinus (Linnaeus 1758)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>28.</p>
            <p>Colombian White-faced Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus capucinus</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou capucin / German: \Weifl3schulter-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de cara blanca de Colombia</p>
            <p>Other common names: \White-headed Capuchin, White-throated Capuchin; Colombian White-faced Capuchin (capucinus), Gorgona White-faced / White-throated Capuchin (curtus)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia capucina Linnaeus, 1758 , </p>
            <p> Colombia. Restricted by E. A. Goldman in 1914 to northern Colombia.</p>
            <p> Intermediates between  C. capucinus and  C. albifrons occur in the middle San Jorge Valley, lower Rio Cauca, Colombia. Two subspecies recognized. </p>
            <p> Subspecies and Distribution.  C.c.capucinusLinnaeus,1758—EPanama,WColombia(Pacificcoastalregion),andNWEcuador(SasfarastheRioEs- meraldas-Guayllabamba). </p>
            <p> C. c. curtus Bangs, 1905 — Gorgona I, Colombia. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 33-45 cm, tail 35-55 cm; weight 3-4 kg (males) and 1.5-3 kg (females). Male Colombian White-faced Capuchins are ¢.27% larger than females. They are relatively slender in build. The body, crown, limbs, and tail are black. The chest is white, extending forward to the face and front of the crown and upward to the shoulders and upper arms. The hairs on the cap form a distinctive black “V” shape. Longer forehead and crown hairs on older individuals may form a ruff, and the white area on the forehead tends to become thinly haired or even somewhat bald with age. The “Colombian White-faced Capuchin” (C. ¢.  capucinus ) is black with white or yellowish-white on the face, front of the crown, throat, and shoulders. The “Gorgona Whitefaced Capuchin” (C. ¢. curtus) is a small and relatively short-tailed insular subspecies. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Variety of habitats, preferring terra firma primary forest or older secondary forest, but also occurs in seasonally inundated forests, remnant degraded forest patches with Scheelea magdalenica palms (food and sleeping sites), mangroves, and deciduous dry forest in both lowland and montane areas. On the western slopes of the Andes, Colombian White-faced Capuchins occur up to elevations of 1800-2100 m. They prefer the canopy but use all levels of the forest, and go to the ground.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. The Colombian White-faced Capuchin eats mainly ripe fruits and insects, but also leaves, flowers, and bird eggs. The Gorgona White-faced Capuchin eats oysters, which they open by banging them with stones. They catch and eat crabs at low tide and raid corn crops.</p>
            <p>Breeding. Female Colombian White-faced Capuchins give birth to a single young every two years. Gestation is 157-167 days. Births may occur at any time of the year but reach a peak in December—April. They have been known to live over 40 years.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Colombian Whitefaced Capuchins are 6-24 individuals. There have been no studies in the wild, and the large majority of what is known about white-headed capuchins comes from studies of populations in Central America. Until recently, these were considered to be synonymous with the Colombian White-faced Capuchin, but they are now classified as the Panamanian White-faced Capuchin (  C. imitator ). There is no doubt, however, that ecological and behavioral aspects of the Colombian White-faced Capuchin will be broadly similar to, or the same as, those of the well-known Panamanian White-faced Capuchin. </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List, with the Gorgona White-faced Capuchin classified as Vulnerable. The Colombian White-faced Capuchin is hunted and trapped in some areas as a crop pest. Many populations are threatened by deforestation. The nominate subspecies, the Colombian White-headed Capuchin, occurs in Chagres, Darién, and Portobelo national parks in Panama, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve and Los Cedros Protected Forest in Ecuador, and Ensenada de Utria, Farallones de Cali, and Los Katios national natural parks in Colombia. The Gorgona White-faced Capuchin occurs in Gorgona National Natural Park.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boubli et al. (2012), Defler (2003b, 2004), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Hernandez-Camacho &amp; Cooper (1976), Hill (1960), Jack (2011), Ruiz-Garcia, Castillo et al. (2010), Rylands et al. (2006), Tirira (2007).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B73328410DC2FE83351FF5CF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
560F8786B73328400DC3F5503801F520.text	560F8786B73328400DC3F5503801F520.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Cebus imitator Thomas 1903	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>29.</p>
            <p>Panamanian White-faced Capuchin</p>
            <p> Cebus imitator</p>
            <p>French: Sapajou du Panama / German: Panama-Kapuzineraffe / Spanish: Capuchino de cara blanca de Panama</p>
            <p>Other common names: \White-headed Capuchin, White-throated Capuchin</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Cebus imitator Thomas, 1903 , </p>
            <p> Chiriqui, Boquete, Panama, elevation 1350 m.</p>
            <p> Abundant scientific literature on this species refers to it as  C. capucinus . In his 1949 review of the Colombian capuchins, P. Hershkovitz listed the form lOmitaneus from the eastern border between Honduras and Nicaragua. It was also recognized by W. C. O. Hill in 1960 and E. R. Hall in 1981. It was believed to be a smaller race than  imitator with a smaller skull. Hershkovitz was not convinced that it was a separate taxon, and J. Boubli and M. Ruiz-Garcia and their coworkers independently concluded that it was genetically indistinguishable from  C. imitator and, having been described in 1914, is a junior synonym. Individuals from Honduras have frosted yellow on their inner thighs. Monotypic. </p>
            <p>Distribution. N Honduras, C &amp; W Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and W Panama (including Coiba and Jicaron Is); reports of capuchins in the Mayan Mountains of W Belize (Chiquebul forest and in the region of the Trio and Bladen branches of the Monkey River), Sarstoon National Park on the S border, and in the Sierra del Espiritu Santo near the Honduras border have not been confirmed.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 34:3-42 cm (males) and 38:5-40.5 cm (females), tail 44-46 cm (males) and 43-45 cm (females); weight 3.7-3.9 kg (males) and 2.6-2.7 kg (females). Male Panamanian White-faced Capuchins are ¢.27% larger than females. The Panamanian White-faced Capuchin resembles the typical Colombian White-faced Capuchin (C.  c. capucinus ), but females have elongated frontal tufts with hairs ¢.40 mm long, with a brownish tinge contrasting with the white of the cheeks and throat, entirely altering the facial appearance. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Lowland, submontane, and montane moist forests from sea level to 1500 m and mosaics of tropical dry forest patches and gallery forest in different stages of regeneration, with severe dry seasons and annual rainfall less than 1700 mm. On the Caribbean coast, annual rainfall can exceed 5000 mm. Panamanian White-faced Capuchin enter mangrove swamps.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. Diet of the Panamanian White-faced Capuchin includes fruits, insects, snails, crabs, clams, slugs, frogs, lizards (Anolis and Ctenosaura), nestling and adult birds, nestling and adult Variegated Squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides), White-nosed Coati pups (Nasua narica), and tree rats. Predation on coati pups occurs in April-May when coatis are breeding. When coati nests are defended, Panamanian White-faced Capuchins cooperate, with some individuals baiting and distracting adult coatis and others grabbing pups. They also eat eggs of various birds, including curassows, guans, magpie jays, nightjars, tinamous, woodpeckers, wrens, herons, and wood ducks. Flowers, leaves, flower and leaf buds, stems and roots, and nectar are also eaten. When foraging for animal prey, Panamanian White-faced Capuchins extensively search leaf litter, the underside of leaves, curled leaves, rotten wood, dead leaves, fallen branches, and open hollow vines and thorns. On Barro Colorado Island, Panama, fruits are least abundant in November—February, and they eat more apical meristems and succulent bases of new shoots. Panamanian White-faced Capuchins especially like to eat larvae and nymphs of beetles, butterflies, moths and spittlebugs, and they attack ant and wasp nests. They rub larvae against branches to remove spines or poisonous hairs, and sometimes they also wrap them in a leaf before rubbing them. Individuals that capture larger prey are only minimally harassed for a share by other group members that are content with bits dropped or abandoned. Panamanian White-faced Capuchins drink water, often from tree holes. Water sources in the dry season can be rare, and daily access to them restricts their movements. Sometimes more than one group uses the same pool to drink, causing tense meetings between groups.</p>
            <p> Breeding. When courting, female Panamanian White-faced Capuchins do not raise their eyebrows and grimace as do female  Sapajus . Instead, they make a so-called “duckface” with lips protruded while looking at their prospective partner. They also have a courtship dance. Pairs pirouette and face away, and then look at each other (mutual gazing) over their shoulders or through their legs. There is a specific call given at this time. Females court and mate throughout the year and in all reproductive states, even when pregnant. Males frequently sniff females’ urine and are more likely to respond when a female is close to ovulating. Females mate with the alpha males more than with subordinates and do so more when fertile. They mate with subordinate males more when they are infertile. Births of Panamanian White-faced Capuchins occur throughout the year but are more common in the dry season. All group males mate but most infants are sired by the alpha male (63-84%). Average interbirth interval for females that have successfully raised their offspring is 27-5 months. If an infant dies (not in the context of a male takeover), interbirth interval drops to 12-3 months. When an infant dies during or after a male takeover, interbirth interval is a little longer at c¢.15-7 months. Females first give birth at about seven years old and males reach reproductive maturity at about ten years. In captivity, they have been known to live for nearly 55 years. </p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Panamanian White-faced Capuchins are active most of the day, starting at or a little before dawn, and rest for a while at midday. Groups in humid (but seasonal) forests of Barro Colorado Island have a general daily pattern of 28% foraging (looking for, handling, and eating food), 47% traveling, 14% resting, and 11% grooming, playing, and engaging in other activities. In dry forest at Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica, foraging takes up more time (41%), traveling less (37%), and resting more (21%), with very little time in social activities. In the wet season, Panamanian Whitefaced Capuchins spend about the same amount of time foraging for plant foods (21%) as they do for animal prey (22%), but in the dry season, foraging for plant food takes up 26% of the day and animal prey 10-5%. They often go to the ground to forage, drink water, or move between patches of trees. They sleep at the ends of the branches in large tall trees. Groups generally do not sleep in the same site on consecutive nights.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Group sizes of Panamanian Whitefaced Capuchins average c.16, and adult sex ratios of c.0-7 male:1 female. During five years, a group studied by J. Oppenheimer on Barro Colorado Island had 1-3 adult males and 5-7 adult females. Their home range was 164 ha, with a core area of 87-8 ha where most of their time was spent. Home ranges, but not core areas, overlap, and when groups (infrequently) meet, there are aggressive displays, particularly by males. Females typically remain in their natal group and males disperse. Females and males  form independent dominance hierarchies, and the alpha female is subordinate only to the alpha male. She dominates subordinate males. Females  form coalitions and together they can displace the alpha male at disputed food sources. Females tend to threaten males more than females, and they receive fewer threats than they give. Males do not form all-male groups, and when males move into another group and displace resident males, it is quite rapid and generally violent, sometimes involving fatalities. Males may transfer between groups several times in their lifetimes, either singly or in coalitions of as many as two other males that are sometimes siblings. Overall, 67-80% of all emigrations involve parallel dispersal (two or more males transferring groups together). Dispersals of these coalitions are robust, and a coalition can last for several transfers; residency of coalitions in any one group is longer than individually dispersing males. Sometimes males transfer to a new group peacefully and unobtrusively, without contesting the existing male hierarchy, but when they are aggressive and involve the replacement of the alpha male, they are associated with the wounding, death, and disappearance of infants. Most male takeovers of groups occur during the dry season, and ¢.82% of the infants that are less than one year old die (average age of death is 4-4 months) after the takeover. In years when there is no male takeover, c.2% of infants die. Males spend more time scanning the environment than females, but they are less concerned with predators than they are with detecting takeover threats from outside males and with monitoring males in their own group. Unlike other capuchins, Panamanian White-faced Capuchins rarely associate with squirrel monkeys (  Saimiri ) where they are sympatric (e.g. Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica). This is probably because squirrel monkeys would gain little from increased predator detection by the capuchins, and the particularly predaceous capuchins would interfere with the squirrel monkeys’ foraging. Predators include snakes (Boa constrictor), large cats (Panthera onca, Puma concolor), small cats (Puma yaguaroundi and possibly Leopardus pardalis and L. wiedn), Tayra (Eira barbara), Coyotes (Canis latrans), spectacled caimans (Caiman crocodilus), and raptors, including the great black hawk (Buteogallus urubitinga). Panamanian White-faced Capuchins give alarm calls that are specific to aerial and terrestrial predators. When detected close, terrestrial predators are mobbed and chased. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as  C. capucinus imitator ). The Panamanian White-faced Capuchin occurs in numerous protected areas: La Amistad International Park (Panama/Costa Rica), Braulio Carillo, Chirripo, Corcovado, Guanacaste, Palo Verde, Piedras Blancas, Rincon de la Vieja, Santa Rosa, Tortuguero, and Volcan Poas national parks, Lomas Barbudal Biological Reserve, and Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve in Costa Rica; Cerro  Hoya, Coiba Island, Soberania, Altos de Campana, Soberania, Omar Torrijos Herrera-El Copé, and Volcan Baru national parks and Barro Colorado National Monument in Panama; and Pico Bonito, Jeanette Kawas, Cusuco, Montana de Yoro, Sierra de Agalta, and Punta Izopo national parks in Honduras. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boubli et al. (2012), Defler (2003b, 2004), Fedigan (2003), Fedigan &amp; Jack (2004), Fedigan &amp; Rose (1995), Fragaszy, Fedigan &amp; Visalberghi (2004), Fragaszy, Visalberghi et al. (2004), Freese (1977), Freese &amp; Oppenheimer (1981), Gros-Louis (2002), Gros-Louis et al. (2003), Hall (1981), Hershkovitz (1949), Hill (1960), Jack (2011), Jack &amp; Fedigan (2004a, 2004b), Manson et al. (1999), Matamoros &amp; Seal (2001), Milton &amp; Mittermeier (1977), Newcomer &amp; de Farcy (1985), Oppenheimer (1968, 1973, 1982), Panger et al. (2002), Perry, (1996), Perry &amp; Rose (1994), Rose &amp; Fedigan (1995), Rose et al. (2003), Ruiz-Garcia et al. (2012), Rylands etal. (2006), Silva-Lopez et al. (1995), Thomas (1903).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/560F8786B73328400DC3F5503801F520	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Cebidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 348-413, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6628559
