taxonID	type	description	language	source
03AE87DDFF9CBD10FE35FDCCFA64FAD1.taxon	diagnosis	• Small to medium-sized rodents with adaptations for subterranean life such as cylindrical bodies, enlarged incisors, and reduced tails, eyes, and ear pinnae. • 13 - 70 cm. • Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indo-Malayan regions. • Steppes, grasslands, meadows, forests, bamboo thickets, and farmlands. • 7 genera, 28 species, 4 H taxa. • 2 species Endangered, 1 species Vulnerable; none Extinct since 1600.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	materials_examined	Dauuria, Transbaikalia, Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	discussion	Member of M. myospalax species group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalax group in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax aspalax is the sister species of M. armandii, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. aspalax is distinct from but closely related to M. armandii. They were united into the aspalaxsuperspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 166 - 212 mm, tail 34 - 65 mm; weight ¢. 300 g. Male Steppe Zokors are larger (c. 350 g) than females (c. 250 g). They are pale glossysilvery white to gray. Some specimens have yellowish tinge. Nose area and region around eyes are pure white. Flanks are often darker, and venter is grayer. Tail and feet are sparsely furred with white hair. Young Steppe Zokors are similar in color to adults but more yellow. Diploid numberis 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppe, meadows, or farmland and fallow fields. The Steppe Zokor also occurs along riverbanks, in grassy plains, and in forest glades. Fossil record suggests that it was once more widespread.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Steppe Zokors feed on plant matter, preferring underground roots and rhizomes. Preferred foods include Allium (Amaryllidaceae), Stellera (Thymelaeaceae), Phragmites, and Leymus (both Poaceae).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	breeding	Breeding. The Steppe Zokor breeds in May-June and gives birth to a small litter of 1 - 3 young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Steppe Zokors are active year-round. They dig using forelimbs; incisors appear to be used only for dealing with roots.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Steppe Zokors construct burrows in rich dark soil. Burrows are complex with more than 20 m of tunnels recorded. Feeding tunnels are located close to the surface, and temporary storage chambers may be dug near these. Burrows are c. 50 cm deep. Winter nests are deeper, up to 2 m. Mounds are 50 - 60 cm in diameter and 20 - 25 cm tall and are set ¢. 80 cm apart. Steppe Zokorslive alone, but male and female burrow systems may connect for mating. Densities were 2 ind / ha at a site in Zabaykalsky Krai, and they can be locally abundant.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFEFF40AF602F86A.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. armandii). Steppe Zokors are found in protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	materials_examined	near Paniusheva on Alei River, 100 km SE of Barnaul, Sommaren, Altai Krai, Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	discussion	Member of the M. myospalax species group. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 considered this group to also include M. aspalax, M. armandii, and fossil species M. young: and M. pseudarmandii. This position has some support based on morphology and has been corroborated, although weakly, by the molecular data of O. V. Tarasov and colleagues in 2011. An alternate hypothesis that M. myospalaxis sisterto all living species of Myospalax is weakly suggested by RAPD-PCR data. Based on those data, M. myospalax was treated as the only member of the M. myospalax group by I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Three subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 203 - 266 mm, tail c. 48 mm; weight 200 - 720 g. Male Altai Zokors are larger than females. Color varies from gray-straw-rust with cinnamon tinge to ocher-rust-gray with grayer tinge. Snout and forehead are lighter. Pelage is denser in winter than summer. Tail and feet are covered in dense gray-whitish yellow fur. Young are grayer than adults. Diploid number is 2 n = 44.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forest steppe, meadow steppe, and farmland. Altai Zokors live in areas with shrubs and occasional forest but are absent in dry steppe, stony areas, and core forest. They are present in the Altai Range and surrounding areas and the Tarbagat Range at elevations up to 2750 m. They dig burrows in areas with soft meadow soil and grasses and are often found in meadows ofriver valleys. Although surface temperatures vary wildly in its distribution, burrows exhibit milder annual variation. Soil temperatures at depths of surface tunnels vary from - 9 ° C in winter to 23 ° C in summer, but deeper chambers stay at 1 - 10 ° C.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Altai Zokors feed on roots, stems, and leaves of a variety of plants. Roots, bulbs, and young shoots are stored for winter use.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Altai Zokors mate in September — - November and until March-April. One litter is produced per year with 1 - 10 young / litter, usually 3 - 5 young. Sexual maturity occurs at 7 - 8 months of age.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Altai Zokors are primarily active at dusk and dawn.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Altai Zokors live underground except during dispersal of juveniles and occasional aboveground foraging bouts. Burrows are complex, with up to 150 m of tunnels, and go as deep as 40 - 110 cm. Separate storage, nest, and toilet chambers are found in lower areas, while feeding tunnels are at depths of 5 - 27 cm. Burrows have separate temporary nests and permanent winter nests. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), foxes, and raptors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD12FFE9FDB7FDE2F4C5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Altai Zokors occur in some protected areas. Several populations appear to be declining and becoming more isolated. K. Tsytsulina in 2008 indicated that it should be considered near threatened in some parts of its distribution. The Altai Zokor was historically hunted forits pelt, but this has grown less common. It can be a pest of crops, especially tubers and alfalfa, and is subject to control measures.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	materials_examined	Mongolian plateau (N Shanxi).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	discussion	Member of M. myospalax species group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalax group in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax armandii is the sister species of M. aspalax, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. aspalax. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. armandii is distinct from but closely related to M. aspalax. They are united into the aspalax superspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 140 - 233 mm, tail 48 - 69 mm; weight 225 - 422 g. Measurements are from A. T. Smith in 2008, which may include specimens of the Steppe Zokor (M. aspalax). Armand’s Zokor looks similar to the Steppe Zokor. It is grayish, with yellow or light brown tinge. Lips are white, and forehead and other parts of head and ears can have white spots. Venter is grayish white, and tail and feet have short white hairs. Diploid number is 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppe, meadows, and farmland.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Armand’s Zokor feeds on underground roots, rhizomes, leaves, and buds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Armand’s Zokor constructs burrows in rich, dark, soft soil.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9EBD13FAE2F7B6FD54FDF5.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. aspalax in both).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	materials_examined	“ Khingan Mts., Manchuria, 3400 [= 1036 m], ” Heilongjiang Province, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	discussion	Member of M. psilurus species group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated (along with M. psilurus) as a member of the M. aspalax group in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. Myospalax epsilanus is the sister species of M. psilurus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. epsilanus was sister to all other extant Myospalacinae, but this idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCRsupport the conclusion that M. epsilanusis distinct from but closely related to M. psilurus. They are united into the psilurus superspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. On the basis of differences in incisive foramen and molar morphology, A. Yu. Puzachenko and colleagues in 2014 suggested that a distinct subspecies may be present in Zabaykalsky Krai and E Mongolia, but it has not been named. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 198 - 223 mm, tail ¢. 43 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Khingan Zokoris slightly larger than the Manchurian Zokor (M. psilurus). It is straw gray-brown, with slight reddish tones. Nose and forehead are lighter and grayer. Chin and throat are whitish, and additional white patches can be present elsewhere on head. Venter is grayer. Tail is almost naked; hairs are sparse. Young are lighter than adults. Pterygoid fossa is deeper and M ® is smaller compared with the Manchurian Zokor. Incisive foramen is shorter on the Khingan Zokor than the Manchurian Zokor. Diploid numberis 2 n = 64.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. River valleys, steppe-woodland, and mixed grassy meadows, preferring steppe and meadows. The Khingan Zokoris not as much of an agricultural pest as many other species of zokor.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Khingan Zokor eats cereal rhizomes, stems, and shoots under natural conditions. Roots and shoots of other plant varieties constitute the remainder of the diet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Khingan Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF46F4A0F752F99E.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (under M. psilurus in both). The Khingan Zokor is classified as “ declining ” in the Red Data Book of Russia (as M. psilurus epsilanus). It is threatened by habitat degradation as natural landscapes are converted to agriculture. It occurs in protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	materials_examined	south of Beijing, Chihli (= Hebei), China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	discussion	Member of M. psilurus species group according to G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 but treated as a member of the M. aspalax group in I. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012. It is the sister species of M. epsilanus, and the two have often been historically united into the same species, M. psilurus. M. A. Lawrence in 1991 proposed that M. psilurus was more closely related to other species of Myospalax than to M. epsilanus, butthis idea has since been broadly rejected. Morphological data and RAPD-PCR support the conclusion that M. psilurus is distinct from but closely related to M. epsilanus. They were united into the psilurus superspecies by Pavlinov and Lissovsky in 2012. Populations from Primorsky Krai, Russia, had been assumed to be M. epsilanus until recently. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 200 - 270 mm, tail 35 - 55 mm; weight 185 - 400 g. Measurements are taken from A. T. Smith in 2008 and probably include size ranges for the Khingan Zokor (M. epsilanus). The Manchurian Zokoris straw gray with slight reddish or yellow tones. Cheeks and forehead are ashy fawn. White blaze is present on back of head. Venter is grayer. Tail and feet are almost naked; long sparse white hairs are present. Incisive foramen of the Manchurian Zokor is longer than that of the Khingan Zokor. Diploid numberis 2 n = 64.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Rivervalleys, fallow land, steppe woodland, and early succession forest, preferring steppe meadows.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Manchurian Zokors feed on roots, rhizomes, stems, bulbs, and shoots of a variety of plants. Small rodents (Apodemus and Phodopus) have been found in the stomachs of Manchurian Zokors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating of Manchurian Zokors occursin late April to early May. One litter of 2 - 4 young is produced per year. Young are typically born in early May, weaned in early June, and remain with their mother through spring and early summer. By October, at a length of c. 190 mm, juveniles establish their own small burrows near their mothers. Longer distance aboveground dispersal may take place the following spring.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Manchurian Zokors are most active at dusk and dawn.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Manchurian Zokors include feeding tunnels located 12 - 20 cm belowground and a deeper (40 - 110 cm) section that includes a nest, storage chambers, and toilets. Active digging occurs in feeding tunnels while food is sought. Feeding tunnels are plugged when they are abandoned. Digging activity markedly increases in October when extra food is gathered for winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD13FF3DFD14FD85F57D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List (assessments that include M. epsilanus). Populations of Manchurian Zokor in Primorsky Krai, Russia, are declining.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	materials_examined	Kansu, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	discussion	Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated them as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansus and bailey: as subspecies of fontanierii and treated rufescens as a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontanieri pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi or E. cansus. In recent years, a variety of studies support treating E. fontanierii as a distinct species from these other forms based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data recover E. fontanierii as sister to a clade that contains all other species of Eospalax with moderate support. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 163 - 245 mm, tail 38 - 69 mm; weight 184 - 563 g. Male Fontanier’s Zokors are larger than females. They are large and gray to yellowish brown overall. Hairs are slate-gray at the base and tipped with a more brownish color that shine enough to give slightsilvered effect. Chin and throat are gray, and underside is slightly grayer than dorsum. Upper lips and muzzle are white or light, and distinctive white streak is usually present running down midline of head. Additional white patches may be present elsewhere on body. Tail is long and sparsely haired, nearly naked. Feet are also sparsely haired. Young are dark gray; hairs are paler at tips. M ” * has three re-entrant folds. Diploid numberis 2 n = 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppe, grassland, farmland, pastures, and lawns.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Fontanier’s Zokor feeds on roots and underparts of plants, usually accessing them from below. Food plants include Chinese artichoke (Stachys sieboldu, Lamiaceae), ladybells (Adenophora, Campanulaceae), Bupleurum (Apiaceae), great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis, Rosaceae), Chinese red pine saplings (Pinus tabuliformas, Pinaceae), and sedges (Carex, Cyperaceae). It builds up food stores during summer and autumn that are eaten in winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction of Fontanier’s Zokor peaks in March — June. Males and females are thoughtto live separately, only coming together during breeding, but they have been observed in the same burrow at other times. Litter sizes are 1 - 6 young, usually 2 — 4 young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Underground activity of Fontanier’s Zokors peaks in morning and evening. When an individual ventures aboveground, it does so at night.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Fontanier’s Zokors are elaborate with multiple chambers and tunnels, but little indication of a burrow’s presence might be visible aboveground. They are 66 - 127 m long. Food-finding, pathway, and communication tunnels are present along with toilet, nesting, and food storage chambers. Nest chamber is ¢. 35 x 30 x 25 cm, lined with dry grasses and leaves, and located deep in the burrow system (c. 93 cm deep). One to three storage chambers are present. Toilets tend to be located at the far ends of the system. When a toilet is full, it is blocked off, and another one is dug. Parts of the burrow may be abandoned over time; these are walled off. Specific communication tunnels are constructed wherein individuals communicate seismically with neighbors. Predators include the Altai Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9FBD14FA3DF8FDFD43FBF1.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (an assessment that includes E. cansus, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi) and the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. Fontanier’s Zokoris an agricultural pest and is the subject of control measures, including poison.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	materials_examined	“ Taocheo [= Chaozhou], Kan-su, northwestern China. ”	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	discussion	Although O. Thomas and others had treated them as a separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included cansus as a subspecies of Jfontaniern and treated rufescens as a synonym of cansus. Many references to E. fontaniern in the literature pertain to the better-studied FE. cansus. In recent years, various studies have supported treating E. cansus as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. baileyi based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. cansus within Eospalax, but it does not appear to be closely related to E. fontanierii. Three distinct mitochondrial clades of E. cansus have been identified that correspond to central Shaanxi; Ningxia and south-eastern Gansu; and eastern Qinghai and south-western Gansu. These appear to roughly correspond to groupings recovered based on morphometric analysis of Lu Qingbin and colleagues in 2013. Additional research is required to determine if E. cansus warrants division into subspecies or even multiple species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 155 - 230 mm, tail 33 - 66 mm; weight 150 - 430 g. Male Gansu Zokors are larger than females, and populations at higher elevations tend to be larger. The Gansu Zokoris brownish, although slightly darker than Fontanier’s Zokor (E. fontanierii). Hairs are dark gray at bases. Unlike Fontanier’s Zokor, the Gansu Zokor usually lacks white blaze; when present, it is small. Tail and feet are sparsely haired. Immature individuals are gray. Median occipital crest is well-developed, and M? has two re-entrant folds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grassland, shrub-steppe, and forest at elevations of 1500 - 2500 m on the Loess Plateau. Burrows of Gansu Zokors have been excavated in areas with high concentrations of grasses, sagebrush (Artemisia, Asteraceae), and thyme (Thymus, Lamiaceae).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Gansu Zokors eat underground plant matter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Ganu Zokors breed primarily in April-July. As breeding approaches, males consume more food and increase digging activity, and their testes descend. When a captive male was placed in shared spaces with a female, the two initially acted aggressively, began to act more amicably, and finally mated. Courtship lasts ¢. 25 days. Mating bouts appear to be most common in morning, last 10 - 30 minutes, and can continue for 8 - 10 days. Litter sizes are 1 - 5 young, usually 2 - 3 young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. When walking, claws of Gansu Zokors are folded undersoles offeet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Gansu Zokor lives almost entirely underground. Communication occurs seismically via call and head drumming; they squeal when frightened. Individuals clearly know status of neighboring individuals. If an individual is removed, its territory will be quickly occupied. This behavior appears to allow individuals to form overlapping burrow systems, allowing mates to find each other. Males have larger tunnel systems than females and are more aggressive. Predators include the Mountain Weasel (Mustela altaica) and the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmanii). Remains of the Gansu Zokor have also been found in owl pellets.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FFEBFB1BF7F7FDA4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The [UCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Gansu Zokor has a wide distribution and large population and is found in protected areas. Overgrazing is a common problem acrossits distribution, and research is needed to understand complex interactions among overgrazing, erosion, habitat restoration, and zokor activities. The Gansu Zokor is considered a pest because it is thought to exacerbate erosion and hinder forest restoration projects by feeding on seedlings. It is also an agricultural pest of several crops including soybeans.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	materials_examined	Taipai Shan, southern Shensi, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	discussion	G. M. Allen in 1940 reluctantly treated E. rufescens as synonymous with E. fontanierii cansus based on limited and incomplete material. Fospalax rufescens has been treated as conspecific with E. fontanieru, E. cansus, or E. bailey: (under the older name rufescens), but it had rarely been treated as a distinct species in its own right until recently. Various studies support distinctiveness of E. rufescens among species of Fospalax based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, and hair morphology. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithii or E. baileyr, but a sister relationship with E. cansus has also been suggested. Additional research is needed to assessits position within the genus Fospalax. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c. 186 mm, tail ¢. 33 mm. No specific data available for body weight. The Qinling Zokoris dark gray to rufescent brown. Tail is brownish white and well-furred. Hindfeet are also well-furred. Nasals are long and slightly trapezoidal in shape, and incisive foramina extend well into maxilla. M? lacks a second re-entrant fold.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grassy habitat and cropland at elevations above 2000 m in Qin Mountains.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Qinling Zokor prefers to construct burrows in soft soils with few rocks on sunny slopes with sparse shrubs.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD14FAE0FDE8F6C9F7BA.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as data deficient on the 2016 China Red List, where it is treated as a distinct species. The Qinling Zokor seems to benefit from an intermediate level of human disturbance such as cleared land near highways. It is an agricultural pest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	materials_examined	between Nagchuka (or Hokow) and Tatsienlu, Ramasong, W Szechwan, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	discussion	Although O. Thomas in 1911 treated E. baileyi as separate species, G. M. Allen in 1940 included it as a subspecies offontanieru. S. Y. Song in 1986 regarded baileyi as a subspecies of rufescens. Many references to E. fontanierii and E. rufescens pertain instead to the betterstudied E. baileyi. In recent years, various studies support treating E. bailey: as a distinct species from E. fontanierii, E. rufescens, and E. cansus based on mtDNA, cranial morphology, molar shape, hair morphology, and features of internal organs. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. smithii or E. rufescens. Four to six deeply divergent, geographically discrete, mitochondrial clades have been identified within E. baileyi, and these may show some overlap with the three morphological groups suggested by Tang Lizhou and colleagues in 2009. Additional research is required to determine if E. baileyi warrants further division into multiple species or subspecies. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 160 - 235 mm, tail 33 - 61 mm; weight 173 - 490 g. Male Plateau Zokorsare larger than females. They are pale rufous-brown with pinkish buff. Tail is short and densely furred with whitish hairs. Feet are also hairy. Young are gray. Incisive foramina is restricted to premaxilla.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Alpine meadows, steppe meadows, shrubs, and farmland. at elevations of 2800 - 4500 m on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The Plateau Zokor prefers moist soil and degraded grassland and avoids desert, irrigated land, and boulder fields. Microclimate of its burrows allows for less extreme temperature swings and milder temperatures overall. While aboveground January temperatures may be — 4 to — = 38 ° C, burrows maintain a temperature of 0 - 5 ° C. Humidity is high (79 - 87 - 3 %) in these burrows compared to dry external climate (31 - 7 - 53 - 3 %). Nevertheless, microclimate in burrows presents challenges. Oxygen levels are low (17 - 18: 4 % in burrow compared to 20 - 4 % externally), and carbon dioxide levels are extremely high (0 - 22 - 1 - 5 % in burrow compared to 0 - 03 % outside). The Plateau Zokoris a subterranean and a high-elevation species, and it has substantially elevated red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentration; it is extremely efficient at delivering oxygen to tissue. Oxygen pressure in arterial blood of the Plateau Zokoris 1 - 5 times higher than laboratory rats, and oxygen pressure in venous blood is 0 - 26 times that of lab rats.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Plateau Zokors feed on roots and shoots of forbs, grasses, and some shrubs. They prefer taproots and storage organs of plants such as Notopterygium forbesii (Apiaceae), Potentilla anserina (Rosaceae), Morina chinensis (Caprifoliaceae), and dandelions (Taraxacum, Asteraceae). Plants are accessed from feeding tunnels belowground. The Plateau Zokor will grab roots and pull the entire plant down into the tunnel system where it is consumed. All zokors have an adaptation in the thumb claw where it is shortened and wears away leaving a central gap. Under laboratory conditions, the Plateau Zokor uses this thumb claw to clean off taproots such as dandelions. The root is then held in both hands, resting in these thumb gaps, as it is consumed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Male and female Plateau Zokors never share a burrow. Mating occursat the intersection of burrows of neighboring males and females. During the mating period, males will dig multiple long tunnels, presumably in hopes of entering female territories. Males and females mate with multiple partners during a single mating period. Females give birth once a year, usually in April-May. Litter sizes are about three young (1 - 5), and lactation lasts c. 50 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Plateau Zokors live mostly belowground. They are active year-round but have higher activity levels in spring and autumn and lowest in winter. The Plateau Zokorsleeps very deeply and can be handled or subjected to loud noises without waking up.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Plateau Zokors are complex, with tunnel systems reaching ¢. 100 m in length and depths of 0 - 8 - 1 - 5 m for males and 2 - 2 - 5 m for females. Burrow systems contain transportation and foraging tunnels, 1 - 2 nest chambers, food stores, and dead end tunnels. Soil is brought to the surface when digging, and their presence is evident by presence of mounds that can take up 15 - 20 % of the surface above the burrow system. Dispersal is probably aboveground and male-biased, but this has not been observed directly. They are solitary and intolerant of one another, becoming aggressive when encountering others. Densities are 5 - 70 ind / ha and average 15 ind / ha. Predators include the Tibetan Fox (Vulpesferrilata), the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmannii), the Chinese Mountain Cat (Felis bietr), Pallas’s Cat (Otocolobus manul), the Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx), the upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius), and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). The Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) and the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) occasionally eat Plateau Zokors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF98BD15FAE3F7E6FD4BF4DD.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. Classified as least concern on the 2016 China Red List whereit is treated as a distinct species. The Plateau Zokor has a wide distribution and large population. An annual eradication program was implemented in the 1990 s, which reduced population size to less than one-third of its formersize. Livestock grazing appears to increase prevalence of Plateau Zokors because it leads to an increase in the types of plants with taproots they prefer. This increase in zokors may in turn further accelerate landscape deterioration, but the system is complex, and researchers debate positive and negative impacts. The Plateau Zokor is considered an ecosystem engineer. A single individual transfers more than 1000 kg of soil to the surface annually. Its burrowing activities mix and aerate soil, increase environmental heterogeneity, enhance infiltration of water into the soil, and thereby curtail erosion. These activities also lessen uptake of greenhouse gases and appear to facilitate spread of invasive plant species. Abandoned burrows are used as shelters by a variety of small mammals (such as the Root Vole, Microtus oeconomus, and Gansu Pika, Ochotona cansus), birds (such as the ground tit, Pseudopodoces humilis, the black-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla adamsi, and several species of ground-sparrows such as Pyrgilauda blanfordi, P. davidiana, P. ruficollis, and P. taczanowski), amphibians and reptiles. Dried bone of Plateau Zokor, known as “ Sailonggu, ” is used in traditional Tibetan medicine as a treatment for inflammation. It is used as a medicinal replacement for Tiger (Panthera tigris) bone, which serves a similar function.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	materials_examined	40 miles (64 km) SE Taochow, Kansu, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	discussion	Eospalax rothschildi has been synonymized with E. fontanieriiby some authorities, butitis generally regarded as a distinct species. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. smithii. Molecular data are inconclusive about affinities of E. rothschildi within Eospalax, but it does not appearto be closely related to E. fontanierii. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 149 - 172 mm, tail 29 - 37 mm; weight 160 - 440 g. Male Rothschild’s Zokors can be slightly larger than females. They are small and grayish brown, with red-tipped fur. White blaze is present on forehead of some but not all individuals. Venter is light grayish brown. Tail is hairy and bicolored, grayish yellow above and white below. Backs of feet are well-furred, with light colored hairs. They are distinguished from other species of Eospalax by smaller size, more slender claws, and smaller molars. Diploid numberis 2 n = 58.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Forest, scrub, grassland, and cropland at elevations of 1000 - 3000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Rothschilds Zokor feeds on a wide variety of grasses and roots and can be a crop pest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Rothschild’s Zokor breeds in spring, beginning in April. Females give birth to onelitter of 1 - 5 young / year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Rothschild’s Zokors are known to construct complex burrows in soft soils.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FF42F405F85AFADB.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Rothschild’s Zokor has a wide distribution and large population, and it is found in protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	materials_examined	30 mi (48 km) SE of Tao-chou, Gansu, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	discussion	G. M. Allen in 1940 suggested that E. smith- # 2 may be a hybrid between E. rothschildi x E. cansus, but subsequent authorities have not adopted this position. On the basis of tooth morphology and smaller body size, M. A. Lawrence in 1991 argued for a sister relationship to E. rothschildi. Molecular data weakly suggest a close relationship to E. rufescens or E. baileyi. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 162 - 255 mm, tail 34 - 39 mm; weight 180 - 460 g. Smith's Zokor has dark brown dorsal pelage, with slight cinnamon colored tips. Back of head is dark gray to velvety black, area around ears is dark brown, and vibrissae are black and white. White forehead blaze is present in some individuals. Venter is grayish brown, also mixed with cinnamon. Immature individuals are bluish gray, with sooty gray head. Temporal ridges are more pronounced, and auditory bullae are more flattened compared with other species of zokors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppe, open fields, grassland, and cropland at elevations above 2000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Smith’s Zokor eats primarily grasses.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding of Smith’s Zokor peaks in June-July, and offspring are born in May-September. Litter size is usually 2 - 4 young but can be as high as eight young. Females produce two litters annually.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Smith’s Zokors construct complex burrows in soft wetsoils.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD15FA3EFA06F896F433.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and as near threatened on the 2016 China Red List. Smith’s Zokor reportedly has a wide distribution and large population, does not face major threats, and is found in one or more protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	materials_examined	near Canton, Guangdong, China.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	discussion	Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Wang Yingxiang in 2003 treated ward: as a distinct species and named neowardi as a new subspecies of wardi. Subspecies vestitus is also sometimes treated as a distinct species. These approaches were not adopted by A. T. Smith in 2008, but presence of multiple species within what is currently recognized as R. sinensis seemslikely. Six subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 216 - 450 mm, tail 50 - 96 mm; weight 1 - 9 kg. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is brownish gray or pinkish gray above, with darker forehead and sides of face. Dorsal pelage is soft, and venter is more sparsely haired. Throatis lighter than rest of venter. Upper incisors are extrabuccal and orange, and they rise perpendicularly from maxilla and then curve slightly inward toward tips. They are not proodont. Single thin sagittal crest is present. There are eight nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Usually bamboo thickets but also pine forests at elevations of 1219 - 3962 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Bamboo roots and shoots are primary foods of Chinese Bamboo Rats, but they also reportedly eat grass seeds and crops. They usually feed at night on the surface.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Reproduction of the Chinese Bamboo Rat peaks in spring but can occur year-round. Litter size is usually 2 - 4 young but can be up to eight. Young are naked and weaned after c. 3 months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Chinese Bamboo Rats appear to leave their burrows to feed on nearby bamboo plants, primarily at night, but they are occasionally active in daytime. This dual subterranean and aboveground life is reflected in morphology of middle and inner ears that have adaptations found in subterranean and terrestrial mammals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Chinese Bamboo Rats are up to 45 m long and extend up to 20 - 30 cm below the surface. Burrows have 4 - 7 external entrances indicated by mounds 50 - 80 cm in diameter and 20 - 40 cm high. Den chamber of 20 - 25 cm is present. Burrows are abandoned after a year as an individual uses up food resources in the area. Predators include the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), the Leopard (P. pardus), and occasionally the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The Chinese Bamboo Rat might fiercely defend itself with its powerful incisors when cornered.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF99BD16FA46F2F8FBCBF6E3.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. Subspecies vestitus is assessed separately as data deficient on the China Red List. It is a crop pest and can be found in agricultural areas. The Chinese Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and is hunted for food.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	materials_examined	Cherrapunji, Khasi Hills, India.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	discussion	Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Rhizomys. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Five subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 240 - 350 mm, tail 90 - 130 mm; weight 1.5 - 2.5 kg. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is grayish brown to chocolate-brown, with lighter venter. Intermittent long white-tipped guard hairs give grizzled appearance. Pelage is dense and soft. White-tipped hairs and dense pelage are less pronounced in the southern part of its distribution. Almost hairless tail is longer relative to head-body length than on the Chinese Bamboo Rat (R. sinensis). Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont; molars are orange. Rostrum is narrower than in the Chinese Bamboo Rat, and sagittal crest is lyre-shaped. There are 8 - 10 nipples: 1 or 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Minute, presumably non-functional, pair of pectoral nipples is present on some individuals. Diploid numberis 2 n = 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bamboo thickets, bamboo hillsides and montane forest, tropical and subtropical deciduous forests, grassland mixed with secondary forest, shrub forest, and, with less frequency, pine and fir forests. The Hoary Bamboo Ratis not common in agricultural areas or mature forest. In the northern parts of its distribution, it is found in bamboo thickets or beardgrass (Polypogon, Poaceae) at elevations of less than 1000 m in China and less than 1500 m in north-eastern India, especially where it overlaps with the Chinese Bamboo Rat, which lives at higher elevations. In the southern part ofits distribution, the Hoary Bamboo Rat is found at a broader range of elevations of 100 - 4000 m. In China, individuals appear to move among habitats seasonally, preferring large bamboo groves, secondary forest, and shrub forest in spring and summer and sparsely forested regions with silvergrass (Miscanthus sinensis, Poaceae) or forked ferns (Dicranopteris, Gleicheniaceae) in autumn and winter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Hoary Bamboo Rats feed on roots and shoots of bamboo, beardgrass, silvergrass, and occasionally other plant types. Individuals generally feed on plants within 5 - 10 m from their burrow entrance. Food may be eaten outside the burrow or dragged back into the burrow. Stalks are held in place by front paws, while outer layers are stripped by incisors. Food is consumed in a manner where upper incisors are held motionless, lower incisors plane the object, and food is chewed by molars. Small uneaten nubs remain after feeding. Captive individuals manually remove cylindrical fecal pellets using incisors and toss them into dung piles. Presumably similar behavior occurs in the wild either in a toilet chamber, or fecal pellets are brought to the toilet.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	breeding	Breeding. A female Hoary Bamboo Rat in estrus does not seal her burrow entrance, and a male moves in to breed. Breeding occurs year-round but peaks in November — December and March — June. Females line nest chambers with dry grass. After gestation of 22 days, a female gives birth to a litter of 1 - 5 young. Young are born naked and weigh 35 - 40 g at birth. Eyes open after 28 - 30 days, and offspring grow a coat ofjet black fur. Weaning takes place 56 - 78 days later, and females appear to reach sexual maturity at c. 160 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Hoary Bamboo Rat exits its burrow at night to feed on the surface. It appears to be less aggressive than the Chinese Bamboo Rat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Hoary Bamboo Rats are relatively simple, containing a single entrance (rarely 2 — 4 entrances), characterized by a mound of dirt. A 1 - 2 m long tunnel connects the entrance to the nest chamber, which is 12 x 32 cm and often contains a store of food. A toilet chamberis located 20 - 40 cm from the nest chamber and a bolt-hole is present. Burrows are temporary; females with young may extend their time in a single burrow to just over a month. Burrows are primarily excavated with incisors; feet are used to push loosened dirt behind. The individual will then turn and push accumulated soil out of the entrance. Hoary Bamboo Rats are solitary except for breeding when males move into females’ burrows. Same-sex adult individuals are never found in the same burrow. Males forced to cohabit in artificial settings will fight and even kill each other. Conspecifics are attacked with bites to head, neck, and cheeks; wild males have been observed with scars in these areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD16FFEEF62DF9B1F630.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Hoary Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas. It is hunted for food and faces habitat loss in parts of its distribution, particularly in western areas. Populations in India appear to be declining and warrant protection.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	materials_examined	Malacca, Malaysia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	discussion	Classically treated as a member of the subgenus Nyctocleptes, but R. Lopez-Antonanzas and colleagues in 2013 showed that extant species of Rhizomys are very closely related with respect to known fossil taxa. Distributions of subspecies are poorly delineated, and multiple species may be present. Four subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 260 - 480 mm, tail 100 - 200 mm; weight 2.1 - 4 kg. The Indomalayan Bamboo Ratis large, with light brown, shaggy pelage. Top of head and cheeks are reddish; belly is lighter and sparsely haired enough that bare skin can be seen between hairs. Tail is hairless and has pink tip. Upper incisors are extrabuccal, orange, and slightly proodont. Unlike other species of Rhizomyini, two posterior toe pads on hindfeet fuse into single pad in adults. There are ten nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 3 pairs of inguinal. Diploid number is 2 n = 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Bamboo thickets at elevations of 1000 - 4000 m. The Indomalayan Bamboo Rat is moderately tolerant of human disturbance.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Indomalayan Bamboo Rat feeds primarily on bamboo, but it may eat roots of other plants or crops such as tapioca and sugarcane.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Most reproductive activity of the Indomalayan Bamboo Rat occurs in February — April or August — - October. After gestation of 22 days, 3 - 5 young are born. It lives c. 4 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Indomalayan Bamboo Rat is nocturnal. It emerges from its burrow to feed and is known to climb bamboo.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Indomalayan Bamboo Rats are up to 9 m long and 1 m deep and are constructed in soft soil. One to six entrances are marked with large mounds.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9ABD17FAE4F65BFE99FB2D.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and the 2016 China Red List. The Indomalayan Bamboo Rat is known from several protected areas and can be common, but it may be in decline in some areas such as parts of southern Myanmar. It is hunted for food and is a crop pest.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	materials_examined	Nepal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	discussion	It is the only species in the genus Cannomys, which is sister to Rhizomys. J. R. Ellerman in 1961 recognized castaneus named by E. Blyth in 1843, pater named by O. Thomas in 1915, and plumbescens named by Thomas in 1915 as distinct subspecies on the basis of differences in head — body length and cranial measurements. V. C. Agrawal in 2000 did not recover evidence to support these differences and suggested that they be synonymized. Nevertheless, it seems likely that C. badius will be split into multiple subspecies, or even species, by future studies. Cannomys has no fossil record. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 147 - 265 mm, tail 47 - 96 mm; weight 210 - 800 g. The Lesser Bamboo Rat ranges from reddish cinnamon, red-brown to chestnut-brown, ashy gray, to purple-black. Venter is lighter. One or more white blazes can occur on top of head, and narrow white band can be present on chin. Eyes and ear pinnae are small, body is stocky, and legs are short. Tail is sparsely haired. Forelimbs are equipped with long, powerful claws. Incisors are red to yellow. The Lesser Bamboo Rat differs from species of Rhizomys in having much smaller body size, smooth instead of granular footpads, more protruding incisors, longer rostrum, larger auditory bullae, longer and more prominent sagittal crest, and the first molar largest and third molar smallest. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. A. Tanomtong and colleagues in 2011 demonstrated diploid number of 2 n = 50, but other sources report 2 n = 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Most strongly associated with bamboo thickets. The Lesser Bamboo Rat also occurs in grassy areas, montane forests, brush, and gardens, butit is absent in rice paddies. It has been observed from sea level to elevations of 4000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Lesser Bamboo Rat feeds on shoots, roots, and leaves from a variety of plants. It prefers young plants and shoots, particularly bamboo and cereals.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	breeding	Breeding. One to five naked Lesser Bamboo Rats are born per litter after gestation of 40 - 43 days. Young are weaned after ¢. 8 weeks and are sexually mature after c. 1 year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Lesser Bamboo Rat is nocturnal and leaves its burrow to feed. It moves slowly aboveground. It is primarily a chisel-tooth digger but also uses its front claws.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Lesser Bamboo Rats can be extensive, reaching lengths of ¢. 58 m and depths of ¢. 60 cm. Burrows are plugged in the day. Densities can reach 600 ind / ha. Predators include small carnivores.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD17FF3AFA27FE61F231.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and data deficient on the 2016 China Red List. The Lesser Bamboo Rat can be an agricultural pest, especially of tea and rubber, and is hunted for food. Certain populations may be threatened by habitat loss and overhunting. It is known from several protected areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	materials_examined	Gondar, Dembea Province, Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	discussion	Excluding 1. macrocephalus, which is widely recognized as a distinct species, 19 named forms of Tachyoryctes have been described. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 recognized twelve of these as distinct species, albeit with hesitation due to absence of studies assessing variation in the genus. They recognized ankoliae named by O. Thomas in 1909 from south-western Uganda and north-western Tanzania; annectans named by Thomas in 1891 from south-western Kenya; audax named by Thomas in 1910 from Aberdare Range, Kenya; daemon named by Thomas in 1909 from northern Tanzania; ibeanus named by Thomas in 1900 from southern Kenya; naivashae named by Thomas in 1909 from south-central Kenya; rex named by E. Heller in 1910 from Mount Kenya; ruandae named by E. Lonnberg and N. Gyldenstolpe in 1925 from eastern DR Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi; rudd: named by Thomas in 1909 from south-western Kenya, south-western Uganda, and north-western Tanzania; spalacinus named by Thomas in 1909 from Mount Kenya area; storey: named by Thomas in 1909 from southwestern Kenya; and splendens that they restrict to Ethiopia, Somalia, and north-western Kenya. Numerous approaches have been proposed to deal with diversity within 7. splendens, with one, seven, ten, twelve, and 14 species recognized by various authorities. In one of the only genus-wide assessments of morphological diversity, F. Beolchini and M. Corti in 2004 used geometric morphometrics and concluded that these should be treated as a single species. A. Monadjem and colleagues in 2015 highlighted the large size of rex and rejected the single species argument put forth by Beolchini and Corti. Their taxonomic treatment recognized twelve species, but they suggested that certain species warrant synonymizing. They specifically suggest that daemon, ibeanus, narvashae, and storeyi might be conspecific and that annectans and audax might also be the same species. Musser and Carleton in 2013 adopted the single species approach pending further study, which is followed here. Considerable diversity is clearly present within what is treated as 7. splendens, but arguments supporting specific systematic treatments have been very weak. L .. A. Lavrenchenko and colleagues in 2014 conducted the only molecular phylogenetic study to date on diversity within 7. splendens sensu lato. Their research was limited to Ethiopian populations and the cytochrome-b gene, but they still recovered four clades exhibiting species-level mitochondrial divergence. There is little doubt that additional study will recover instances of cryptic speciation across allopatric populations found throughout the distribution of 7. splendens. At present, however, available data do not appear to provide support for any particular taxonomic delineation proposed to date. Further study is needed. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 159 - 268 mm, tail 49 - 95 mm; weight 140 - 330 g. Male African Root Rats are often slightly larger than females. They are robust and stocky, with short limbs. They are smaller than Giant Root Rats (7. macrocephalus). Color ranges from ginger, cinnamon-brown, to black with lighter venter. Many individuals have white patches. Juveniles are usually black. Pelage color varies in different regions. Size also varies, although these differences might occur along ecological gradients and might not reflect taxonomic differences. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Third digit on forelimbis longest; first digit is rudimentary. There are eight nipples: 2 pairs of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. Diploid number is 2 n = 48 or 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Well-drained soils in savanna grasslands, and open forests in Afro-montane, Afro-alpine, and adjacent regions in East Africa. The African Root Rat occurs at elevations of 700 - 4150 m and is known from the highest mountains in Kenya and Tanzania. It is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. It is a pest of agricultural fields and gardens. It is usually found where annual rainfall is above 500 mm.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The African Root Rat eats stems and leaves, herbs, grass rhizomes, roots, bulbs, and tubers. Food plants are accessed from below or by digging a feeding opening. Entire plants may be pulled down into the burrow and carried to the nest for eating or storage. When feeding at the surface, a small foraging opening is made, and an individual collects plant material within easy reach. Foraging holes are plugged with dirt after an individual goes belowground. Dirt is brushed from plants with forelimbs while being held with incisors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding of African Root Rats occurs year-round, but pregnant females are most numerous at the end of the rainy season. One to four young are born after gestation of 46 - 49 days. Young weighing 11 - 18 g are born naked and toothless, with eyes closed. They are weaned after c. 35 days and establish their own burrows after c ¢. 80 days. Sexual maturity is reached at ¢. 120 days. Females can become pregnant while nursing a previous brood. Average time betweenlitters is c. 173 days.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The African Root Rat is reported to be diurnal in the wild, active from 10: 00 h until 19: 00 h. Under laboratory conditions, however, it shows distinct preference for nocturnal activity. Individuals remain in burrows more than 75 % of the time. It is a chisel-tooth digger, dislodging soil with extrabuccal incisors. Dirt is held while carried to the surface by being pressed between side of head and forelimb, and a mound is formed. Burrow temperatures in Kenya are ¢. 23 ° C; decomposition of feces and food stores provides added heat. If exposed to temperatures above 30 ° C, the African Root Rat salivates and spreads saliva on its body for evaporative cooling. Long-term exposure to temperatures above 35 - 37 ° C is lethal.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrow systems of African Root Rats are 15 - 44 m long and include foraging burrows, a nest chamber and a bolt-hole. Nest chambers include spaces for sleeping, food storage, and use as a toilet. Burrows are not shared, and individuals aggressively defend them. Individuals communicate seismically by tapping on burrow floors with upper incisors or on ceilings with heads. Neighbors respond with their own taps, patterns that appear specific to individuals. Individuals respond to threats by throwing their heads back, opening their mouths, and lunging forward while squeaking, snorting, and chattering teeth. Male African Root Rats emit a musk-like odor from glands beneath eyes and ears. The African Root Rat is patchily distributed, but where it is present, it can be abundant. Densities of 70 - 200 ind / ha have been reported. The African Root Rat is preyed on by common barn-owls (7 yto alba), raptors, small carnivores, and snakes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF9BBD18FA30FDBAFE3CFA49.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The African Root Rat is common and can be found in protected areas. Resolution of taxonomic uncertainty for the African Root Rat is essential for prioritizing conservation concerns. It is an agricultural and horticultural pest, damaging cassava, sweet potato, peanut, lucerne, and maize crops, along with lawns and young trees.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	distribution	Distribution. S Romania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body c. 242 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. Color of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat is variable; in the original description, it was referred to as reddish brown above and rust-colored below. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat differs from the other members of the S. graecus group in having a rostrum that is narrowed above but wider ventrally.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppes, fields, and orchards of Oltenia and Muntenia, Romania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FAE8FB4BF899F4C4.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List (under S. graecus). Additional careful assessment of the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat separate from the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat (S. graecus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus) is needed. The Oltenia Blind Mole-rat has not been recorded in 30 years and appears to be extremely rare or extinct.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	materials_examined	Shoa, Ethiopia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	discussion	Presence of 71. macrocephalus in the region known until 1995 as Shoa (= Shewa) Province, Ethiopia, is considered suspect. D. W. Yalden and M. J. Largen in 1992 suggested that type material was collected in Begemdir or Wollo Province in northern Ethiopia. No further records of 7. macrocephalus have been recorded from northern Ethiopia since the original description. In a cladistics analysis that included fossil and extant taxa, R. Lopez-Antonanzas and H. B. Wesselman in 2013 showed that the two living root rats are sister taxa with respect to the known fossil species 71. konjiti, 1 pliocaenicus, and 1. makooka. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 224 - 313 mm, tail 40 - 65 mm; weight 330 - 930 g. The Giant Root Rat is stocky and short-limbed, with relatively large head and shorttail. It has soft dense pelage that is silver, brown, or orange. Hairs are gray at bases. Up to three darker lines may be present on crown of head, and dark spot is present on eyelids. Interorbital width is narrow, causing eyes to be distinctively high on face. Subspecies heck: has longer (greater than 7 mm) anterior palatal foramen and zygomatic plate that slopes down to premaxillary-maxillary suture than the nominate subspecies. Large orange incisors are visible externally when mouth is closed. Diploid numberis 2 n = 50.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Restricted to alpine grassland habitat at elevations of 3000 - 4150 m. The Giant Root Rat prefers soil depths greater than 50 cm in swamp shore grasslands and mixed herbaceous moorlands. Moist soils are preferred. In the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, the African Root Rat (7. splendens) is replaced by the Giant Root Rat at elevations above 3000 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Giant Root Rat feeds on grasses and forbs such as Festuca (Poaceae) and Alchemilla (Rosaceae). Food is gathered by opening a hole to the surface and consuming plant material within easy reach of the opening. An individual usually keeps its hindquarters in the opening to facilitate quick escape into the burrow. When food in an area is depleted, the Giant Root Ratseals the opening and creates a new burrow elsewhere. A mouthful of food is collected in short foraging bouts of 6 - 8 minutes and is taken belowground for consumption.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Little information is available. Female Giant Root Rats appear to have one young perlitter.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. The Giant Root Rat is diurnal and active from 08: 00 h to 16: 00 h. Aboveground activity comes in short bursts, roughly ten bouts in dry season adding up to an hour of activity, with fewer during rainy season.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Only a single Giant Root Rat is present in each burrow system. Burrows are up to 90 m long and 12 - 15 cm in cross section belowground, with openings c. 8 cm. An individual's burrow system may be up to 360 m *. All burrow entrances are closed nightly. Densities of 6 ind / ha, 24 ind / ha, 60 ind / ha, and 90 ind / ha have been reported. The ground can feel spongy when Giant Root Rats occur at high densities because ofits burrows. It may reach 50 - 60 % of total rodent biomass in certain locations. The Giant Root Rat is a preferred prey of the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), representing up to 47 % (by volume) of its diet. Other predators include owls and probably raptors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD18FFF4F994F71BFC39.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Giant Root Rat can be present in very high concentrations, butits distribution is restricted and is dependent on a unique ecosystem. Much of its known distribution is in Bale Mountains National Park, but overgrazing by livestock threatens grasslands. It is not clear if the northern subspecies, macrocephalus, persists.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	materials_examined	near Apahida, Cluj County, Romania; Nadaselu, Cluj County, Romania; Lechinta de Mures near Targu Mures, Mures County, Romania; near Gherla, Cluj County, Romania; and near Someseni, Cluj County, Romania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	discussion	L. Méhely in 1909 based his description on multiple fragmentary archaeological specimens. He designated twelve syntypes from five different localities, and no one has subsequently designated a lectotype or otherwise restricted the type locality. Consequently, the type locality encompasses the place of origin of all syntypes in accordance with Article 73.2.3 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature until a lectotype is designated. Spalax antiquus is a member of the S. graecus species group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position ofsella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna, and it is supported by mitochondrial data. Spalax antiguus was traditionally united with S. graecus and S. istricus into a single species (S. graecus). Spalax antiquus was usually treated as a synonym of S. graecus or a synonym of the subspecies S. g. ustricus. In an analysis of mtDNA A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecus and S. antiquus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other species of Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricus that led them to conclude that these represented three distinct species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. There are no specific measurements available. Mehely’s Blind Molerat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is buff, and venter and head are grayish, with some reddish hues throughout. Diploid numberis 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Grassy plains of the Carpathian Basin in Transylvania.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Confirmed predators of Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and domestic dog.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF94BD19FAE9F409FDD0F953.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Not assessed on The IUCN Red List. G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 argued that Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat should be ranked as endangered. Its extent of occurrence and habitat quality are predicted to decline over the next ten years, its area of occupancy is less than 500 km? and it is known to exist in no more than five locations. Four locations where it is present are partly protected. Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat was once more common in the vast grasslands of the Carpathian basin, but this habitat was first converted to pasture and, more recently, to intensive modern agriculture and urbanized landscapes.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	materials_examined	vicinity of Athens, Greece. Corrected by V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 to the vicinity of Chernovtsy, Bukovina Region, Ukraine.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	discussion	Spalax graecus is a member of the S. graecus species group that is characterized by elongated nasal bones and higher position of sella externa of the mandible relative to sella interna and is supported by mitochondrial data. It was traditionally united with S. istricus and S. antiquus into a single species (S. graecus). In an analysis of mtDNA, A. Németh and colleagues in 2013 demonstrated that S. graecus and S. antiqguus exhibited considerable genetic divergence that was comparable to species-level differences among other Spalax. They also demonstrated clear morphological differences among S. graecus, S. antiquus, and S. istricus that lead them to conclude that these represent distinct species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 217 - 280 mm, no visible external tail; weight 415 - 700 g. Bukovina Blind Mole-rat has soft and moderately long fur. Most of dorsal surface is butt, and venter and head are grayish. According to Németh and colleagues in 2013, the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat differs from other members of the S. graecus species group in having nasals that extend posteriorly beyond premaxilla and a flat bottom of incisura corono-alveolaris. Diploid numberis 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Strands of perennial grasses, steppes, and agricultural fields in the hilly Bukovina region of Romania and Ukraine. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat can occur in roadsides, pastures, beet and potato fields, gardens, and forest edge but not deep forest. Itis currently known from 13 localities, bordered on the east by the Prut River and on the west by the Carpathian Mountains. Ecological niche modeling suggests that suitable habitat may be found at elevations of 39 - 848 m.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Bukovina Blind Mole-rat feeds on a variety of plants including dropwort (Filipendula hexapetala, Rosaceae), yarrow (Achillea millefolium, Asteraceae), plantain (Plantago media, Plantaginaceae), couch grass (Elytrigia repens, Poaceae), comfrey (Symphytum officinale, Boraginaceae), and chicory (Cichorium intybus, Asteraceae). Winter food stores weigh 0.4 - 12 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Female Bukovina Blind Mole-rats breed in their second year. Breeding activity begins in January, peaks in February, and can continue into March. Females will give birth to 2 — 4 young in March-April. Young weigh 18 - 20 g and are weaned after c. 3 weeks. They disperse aboveground in late April through May.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Bukovina Blind Mole-rats are solitary. Burrows are constructed in relatively dry soil and usually reach maximum depths of 1 m (up to 3 - 5 m). Feeding tunnels occur at depths of 20 - 25 cm in spring and summer and 30 - 35 cm in winter. One or two nest chambers and multiple toilet and storage chambers are present. In the past, densities had been recorded at 1 - 10 ind / ha in agricultural areas but up to 23 ind / ha under more natural conditions. Current densities in agricultural areas are closer to 0 - 2 - 2 ind / ha. Predators include foxes, mustelids, and, when dispersing, raptors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FF32F8FDF660FBA0.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The assessment includes the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat (S. istricus) and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat (S. antiquus). It has a small range of occupancy and has not been recorded in Romania since the 1960 s or in Ukraine over the last 20 - 40 years. Additional conservation assessment of the Bukovina Blind Mole-rat separate from the Oltenia Blind Mole-rat and Mehely’s Blind Mole-rat is needed.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	materials_examined	Ternopolsk region, Ukraine.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	discussion	Spalax zemni is frequently referred to as S. polonicus or S. podolicus, but zemni named by J. C. P. Erxleben in 1777 is the oldest available name. It includes the fossil form S. diluvii. Spalax zemni is the sister species to S. arenarius. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 200 - 310 mm, no visible external tail; weight 370 - 570 g. Podolsk Blind Mole-rat has slate gray pelage, with reddish trim. Head is lighter gray, and white stripe or spots may be present. Venteris gray. Diploid number is 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Undisturbed steppe but also roadsides, forest belts, and agricultural fields. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats can be found in sandy soils.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats feed on alfalfa, chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), field bindweed (Convolvulus, Concolvulaceae), mallows (Malva, Malvaceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	breeding	Breeding. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are active year-round; digging continues throughout winter months.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats contain feeding tunnels near the surface, deeper chambers, and 2 - 6 vertical tunnels connecting the two levels. Feeding tunnels are located at depths of 13 - 21 cm. Total length of feeding tunnels varies with age of burrow; it can range from 10 m in burrows of young individuals to 210 m in burrows of mature adults. Lower chambers are found at depths of 90 - 275 cm and include 1 - 2 nest chambers, 3 - 5 storage chambers, and toilets. Connecting tunnels can be complex and connect chambers in a circular manner. Mounds have diameters of 30 - 67 cm and heights of 10 - 23 cm. Densities are 1 - 8 ind / ha; in virgin steppe, density is ¢. 8 ind / ha. Predators include the Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanii), the European Polecat (M. putorius), and the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD19FA37FBF0F746F4C7.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. Populations of Podolsk Blind Mole-rats are fragmented. Although they are found across a large geographic landscape, area of occupancy is only ¢. 2000 km? The Podolsk Blind Mole-rat is threatened by loss of its natural steppe habitat due to cultivation and development.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	materials_examined	NW shore of Black Sea, Golaya Pristan, Nikolaev Region, Ukraine.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	discussion	Spalax arenarius is the sister species to S. zemni, and it has been treated as a subspecies or synonym of S. zemni, S. microphthalmus, and S. giganteus in the past. Its species status is supported by morphological features and is broadly accepted in recent texts. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 190 - 275 mm, no visible external tail; weight 380 - 660 g. Male Sandy Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large pale straw-yellow-gray. Front of head is lighter grayish white, and venter is pale mouse gray. Fringe of pale yellow-gray hair extends from nose to ears. Diploid number is 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sparsely vegetated absinth (Ar temisia, Asteraceae) grass and absinthspurge (Euphorbiaceae) steppes. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is found in light, moderately wet, sandy soils with a low water table and is never found in moving sands, dry feather-grass steppe, or alkali soils.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Sandy Blind Mole-rats feed on a variety of plants including field eryngo (Eryngium campestre, Apiaceae), wormwood (Artemisia campestris, Asteraceae), and goatsbeard (7 Tragopogon ucrainicus, Asteraceae). Accumulated winter stores weigh 10 - 15 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Breeding of the Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs once a year in March. Young are born in April-May, and lactation lasts c. 1 month.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Sandy Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Feeding tunnels can be 200 m long and occur at depths of 40 - 50 cm. Individual home ranges are more than 80 m?. Vertical shafts connect to chambers atjust over 1 m deep. Mounds are 35 - 93 cm in diameter and 20 - 45 cm in height. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat occurs at densities of 5 ind / ha in optimal habitat and 0 - 9 - 1 - 2 ind / ha elsewhere. Predators include foxes, mustelids, domestic dogs, and raptors.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF95BD1AFA35F40CFBA5F901.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sandy Blind Mole-rat is protected in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve, but it faces conservation threats and is declining outside ofthis area. Its extent of occurrence is ¢. 2000 km? and its area of occupancy is ¢. 55 km? ®. It is threatened by afforestation activities that are intended to stabilize the landscape and to support commercial forestry. Total population is estimated at 15,000 - 20,000 individuals, which are known from fewer than five localities.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	materials_examined	Novokhoper Steppe, Voronezhskaya Oblast, Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	discussion	All members of the genus Spalax have at some time been treated as synonyms or subspecies of S. microphthalmus. 1. Ya. Pavlinov and A. A. Lissovsky in 2012 treated S. microphthalmus as monotypic, but they noted the possibility that populations in the western part of its distribution may constitute a distinct subspecies. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 suggested that Ciscaucasian populations might be a distinct subspecies; the appropriate name for this form would appear to be typhlus by P. S. Pallas in 1779. M. Korobchenko and I. Zagorodnyuk in 2009 questioned inclusion of typhlus in microphthalmus, suggesting that it has affinities with giganteus and warrants recognition as a distinct species. Pending further study, they provisionally treated it as a distinct subspecies within S. microphthalmus. Two subspecies recognized.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 190 - 315 mm, no visible external tail; weight 120 - 818 g. Male Greater Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. They are large and straw-graybrown, with lighter and grayer head and straw-brown venter. Roots of hairs are mouse gray, and individuals can have this color when tips of hairs are worn off. Small yellowish white patch may be present on forehead. Some specimens have white longitudinal stripe on head. Fringe of yellowish hair extends outward from nose toward ears. Juveniles are much grayer than adults. Thicker winter pelage is present from September to May orJune. Three pairs of nipples are present. Diploid numberis 2 n = 60 or 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Flat steppes and forest steppes in the region between the Dniepr and Volga rivers, from roughly Mordovia southward into Ciscaucasia. Northern populations are fragmented. The Greater Blind Mole-rat prefers to dig in rich black soils and avoids loam and sand. It can be found in agricultural fields, melon plantations, gardens, orchards, and forests.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Greater Blind Mole-rat eats dandelion (7 araxacum, Asteraceae), cow parsnip (Heracleum, Apiaceae), chicory (Cichorium, Asteraceae), and tree seedlings such as oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), mulberry (Morus, Moraceae), and acacia (Acacia, Fabaceae). A higher ratio of leaves and shoots are eaten in spring than later in the year when roots and bulbs are preferred. Accumulated winterstores of food can weigh c. 10 - 14 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Greater Blind Mole-rats breed once a year. Females give birth to 2 - 5 young in late February to early May. Females usually breed in their second year. Life span is 2 - 54 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Digging activities of Greater Blind Mole-rat are most pronounced in spring when food stores are depleted. They are active year-round, but in winter, they reduce activity, focusing in deeper areas. An individual traversing aboveground facing a threat will immediately begin to burrow.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Greater Blind Mole-rats are solitary; individuals may fight until one retreats or dies. Fighting usually involves bites to the face. Juveniles leave their mothers’ burrows and either create a separate adjacent burrow or disperse up to several hundred meters aboveground. Individuals of any age might travel aboveground in search of better locations for burrows, and males might travel aboveground in search of females. Burrow systems can take on a variety of shapes including almost linear, 1 - 2 central areas with feeding tunnels emerging as spokes, or more irregular arrangements. They vary widely in length but can be 100 - 450 m or more across. Feeding tunnels are 10 - 25 cm deep, and deeper chambers are found at depths of 120 - 320 cm. Upper and lower regions are connected by 2 — 4 vertical shafts. One or two nest chambers are present, and these are lined with grass and leaves. Usually 4 - 9 storerooms are present alongside multiple empty chambers. Multiple toilets are present, and these are sealed after filled. Mounds are variable in shape and size, with diameters of 20 - 240 cm (average 50 cm). They are located 1 - 2 m apart. A single individualis estimated to displace 0 - 2 - 0 - 3 m ® of earth daily. Densities are 3 - 10 ind / ha and can be 20 ind / ha in good conditions but lower elsewhere. Populations do not usually exhibit extreme oscillations. Predators include the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the Eurasian buzzard (Buteo buteo), the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans), and carnivorous mammals such as mustelids.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1AFFEAF94EF989F88B.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Broadly speaking, the Greater Blind Mole-rat has a large distribution in which it is abundant and common. It is found in protected areas. Many populations, particularly in the northern part ofits distribution, may be threatened by habitat loss caused by agricultural practices. The Greater Blind Mole-rat can be an agricultural pest and is poisoned. It functions as an ecosystem engineer, affecting soil composition and plant communities. Its burrows are used by a variety of other animals such as small mammals and invertebrates.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	materials_examined	near Makhachkala, W shore of Caspian Sea, Dagestan, Russia.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	discussion	Spalax uralensis had been widely regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteus until 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 250 - 350 mm, no visible external tail; weight up to 1 kg. Male Giant Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is the largest species of blind mole-rat. It has short pale silvery gray-straw pelage. Anterior part of head is lighter, sometimes almost white, and underside is grayer. Young individuals are darker and grayer. Compared with the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat (S. uralensis), the Giant Blind Mole-rat has high and narrow rostrum and wider upper incisors. Diploid number is 2 n = 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Semi-desert and steppe. The Giant Blind Mole-rat prefers sandy or loamy soils. It likes relatively moist areas in otherwise arid areas, such as near bodies of water. It is also known from some agricultural areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Giant Blind Mole-rats feed on underground plant parts such as roots, bulbs, and tubers.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Mating of Giant Blind Mole-rats occurs in December — January. Litter sizes are 2 - 3. Young disperse by autumn, either digging burrows near the mother or by dispersing aboveground. Sexual maturity is reached in the second year.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Giant Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activities peak in March-April.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Giant Blind Mole-rats are solitary, with one individual per burrow except for females with young. Feeding tunnels are located 20 - 50 cm below the surface, and burrow system can be 3 m deep. Mounds are 100 cm in diameter, 30 cm in height, and found at intervals of 5 m. Digging occurs ata rate of 2: 5 cm / h. Where present, it may be the most abundant small mammal. Densities are poorly known, but appear to be ¢. 0 - 5 - 2 ind / ha.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF96BD1BFAEFF8D9FECAFDA2.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List and as rare (category 3) in the Red Data Book of Russia. Distribution of the Giant Blind Mole-rat is very fragmented, and habitat quality continues to decline. Habitat loss has been exacerbated by war, soil salinization, and agricultural practices such as irrigation, overgrazing, and plowing. Itis almost extinct in Chechnya and perhaps Dagestan. It can be a pest in orchards and fields.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	materials_examined	near Odessa, Ukraine.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	discussion	Nannospalax leucodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. It represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric and parapatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Numerous names have been applied to these various forms, many of which are nomen nuda or otherwise unavailable. V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 treated N. leucodon as a single species with two subspecies: leucodon from eastern Hungary, Romania, Moldovia, and Ukraine and monticola from Hungary and Bulgaria, southward to Greece and European Turkey. At the other extreme, I. Savi ¢ and colleagues in 1984 recognized 13 species and ten additional subspecies, granting named status to all known cytotypes. Genetic diversity among populations of N. leucodon appears to be lower than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, but to date, sampling has been restricted to the western part ofits distribution. Assessing species boundaries will probably require combining data on karyotypes with molecular phylogenetics because morphological data appear to be of limited use. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head — body 150 - 240 mm, no visible external tail; weight 162 - 504 g. Male Lesser Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. Color varies but is typically brownish to gray, with tinge of yellow, ginger, or yellow-red. Anterior of head is less brown and more gray. Ridge of longer white to yellow hair extends from sides of nose toward ears. Venter is mostly gray. White or yellow spots are common in northern populations but less so in other regions such as Turkey. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are yellow or white. Populations in Turkey are smaller. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 29 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2 n = 38 - 62.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Steppes, grasslands, meadows, and pastures from sea level to elevations up to 2400 m. Lesser Blind Mole-rats can be found in forest clearings, small fields adjacent to pasture, and orchards. They prefer deep, loose, and well-drained soil. They are usually absent in forest, wetlands, rocky areas, and heavily cultivated areas.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. Lesser Blind Mole-rats feed primarily on bulbs, roots, and tubers, with supplements from green plant parts. Green plant matter is important for weaned juveniles and adults in late spring. Insects are also sometimes eaten. The Lesser Blind Mole-rat eats ¢. 36: 5 % ofits body mass daily. Its energy budgetis 0 - 17 kcal / g / day except in winter when it increases to 0 - 22 kcal / g / day. Food caches of 6 - 20 kg have been reported.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Pregnant female Lesser Blind Mole-rats are most commonly captured in March. Gestation is 30 days. Young are born in March-April and weigh 6 - 6 - 5 g. Litter size is usually 2 — 4 young, but 1 - 6 young have been recorded. Young are weaned after 2 - 2 - 5 months; young males weigh 137 g while females weigh 121 g by the end of May. Females start breeding in their second year. In captivity, females live up to 3 - 5 years, and males live 4 - 5 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Activity of the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is polyphasic, with two peaks at 13: 00 - 14: 00 h and 01: 00 - 02: 00 h in some reports and three peaks at 11: 00 - 13: 00 h, 07: 00 - 09: 00 h, and 17: 00 - 21: 00 h in others.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Lesser Blind Mole-rats have a main tunnel with secondary tunnels branching off. An individual digs c. 1: 7 m of tunnel daily, yielding 10 kg of excavated dirt. Total tunnel length is 65 - 195 m and spread over 194 - 1000 m?. Peripheral feeding tunnels are located at depths of 15 - 25 cm; deeper passages may reach 410 cm. Oval-shaped 28 x 18 x 16 cm nests are centrally located at depths of 25 - 50 cm; they are lined with grasses. Multiple food caches and toilet chambers are present. Mounds are located 21 - 30 m apart. Densities are usually 1 - 13 ind / ha, but 23 ind / ha have been recorded. Lesser Blind Mole-rats are solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Predators include the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Least Weasel (Mustela nivalis), the Ermine (M. erminea), the Steppe Polecat (M. eversmannii), domestic dog, domestic cat, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7 yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), and the Eurasian magpie (Pica pica).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF32F6A2F86FF4EC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax leucodon). Species boundaries are poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Lesser Blind Mole-rat is threatened by habitat loss due to agriculture, urbanization, and other development. The superspecies is found in protected areas, but several of the species in this complex are undoubtedly threatened, lack protection, and are in dire need of assessment as individual entities. For example, G. Csorba and colleagues in 2015 evaluated conservation status of the N. leucodon superspecies in the Carpathian Basin, treating forms therein as four distinct species. They proposed that N. (leucodon) transylvanicus from north-eastern Hungary and north-western Romania warrants a status of vulnerable because area of occupancy is no more than 120 km?, it is known from under ten localities, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (l.) hungaricus from eastern Hungary and northern Serbia as endangered because extent of occurrence and area of occupancy is no more than 300 km? it is known from under five localities, more than 95 % of the population is found at a single locality, and habitat area, extent, and quality continue to decline. They assessed N. (lL) montanosyrmiensis from southern Hungary and northern Serbia as critically endangered because extent of occurrence is no more than 100 km? area of occupancy is less than 10 km?, it is known from only three localities, these populations continue to decline, and habitat size and quality continue to decline. Finally, they assessed N. (l.) syrmiensis from western Hungary and northern Serbia as data deficient because it has not been recorded in 30 years and is likely extinct. Similar detailed assessment is needed for the rest of the geographic distribution.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	materials_examined	Chingerlauz region, W Kazakhstan.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	discussion	Although originally described as a separate species, S. wuralensis was generally regarded as a synonym or subspecies of S. giganteus until 1993 when A. Yu. Puzachenko demonstrated its unique status using morphometrics. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body up to 310 mm, no visible external tail. No specific data are available for body weight. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is smaller and darker but generally similar to the Giant Blind Mole-rat (S. giganteus). It has lower and broader rostrum and narrower upper incisors than the Giant Blind Mole-rat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Sandy massifs along floodplains of the lower Ural River basin. Distribution of the Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat is tied to presence ofits primary food source, Volga wild rye (Elymus giganteus, Poaceae).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rat feeds on multiple plant species, but Volga wild rye represents the bulk of its diet. Food caches reach sizes of 2 - 5 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats usually breed once a year in spring or summer, but females will occasionally have a second litter in autumn. Litter sizes are 2 — 6 young.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Kazakhstan Blind Mole-rats are active year-round. Digging activity peaks in spring and is lowest in June.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Kazakhstan Blind Molerats include feeding tunnels near the surface and deeperliving chambers. Burrows are 145 - 540 m long and 0 - 9 - 3 m deep. Densities are 0 - 26 — 1 ind / ha in marginal conditions and 4 ind / ha in quality habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1BFF33FDF1FDFBF7A0.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The Kazakhstan Blind Mole-ratis listed as rare with limited distribution (category 3) on the Red List of Kazakhstan. It is threatened by overgrazing and experiences declines in drought years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	materials_examined	Smyrna, Turkey.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	discussion	Nannospalax xanthodon is included in subgenus Mesospalax. The name nehringi by K. A. Satunin in 1898 is frequently used to represent this species, but xanthodon used by A. von Nordmann in 1840 has priority. Nannospalax xanthodon has been treated as a synonym of N. leucodon, and the two are clearly related, but both forms are themselves composed of multiple species, and recognition of two, if not more, species has been common since V. A. Topachevskii in 1969 characterized differences in their morphology. Like N. leucodon, N. xanthodon represents a superspecies composed of a complex of allopatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Topachevskii recognized two subspecies, nehringi from eastern Turkey, Georgia, and Armenia, and a western subspecies found in the rest of Asian Turkey, which he listed as cilicicus, but is probably more appropriately the nominate xanthodon. Recent studies have uncovered a number of karyotypes across the distribution of N. xanthodon, and some have argued that each of these warrant species or subspecies recognition, or at least recognition as evolutionary significant units. Genetic diversity among populations of N. xanthodon is higher than what is observed within other species of Nannospalax, and Y. Hadid and colleagues in 2012 concluded that it is paraphyletic with respect to N. leucodon, although with weak support. Specifically, they found several populations with 2 n = 60 or 62, including vasvariinamed byJ. Szunyoghy in 1941, as sister to a clade uniting N. leucodon with the remaining populations of N. xanthodon. Populations with 2 n = 60 or 62 are spread widely across central Turkey, and several older names are available for forms in this region, but blind mole-rats from at least part of this area will probably warrant recognition as a distinct species. In an RFLP study, T. Kankili ¢ and C. Giirpinar in 2014 suggested that N. labaume: may be the appropriate name for this taxon. Their results also suggested the presence of a more westerly distributed N. xanthodon and an eastern N. nehringi whose range essentially corresponds to Topachevskii’s definition of N. [x.] nehringi. In a study of bacular morphology, Kankili ¢ and colleagues in 2014 further supported division ofthis species into three species: N. xanthodon, N. nehringi, and N. labaumei. Although geographical boundaries of these probable species are not fully defined and status of some older names such as cilicicus named by L. Méhely in 1909 are notclear, available evidence suggests that superspecies N. xanthodon probably warrants division into at least these three species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 143 - 248 mm, no visible external tail; weight 130 - 522 g. Male Anatolian Blind Mole-rats are larger than females. It is medium-sized, and on most of its body, individual hairs are slate-gray on most of the length, with terminal buff of gray, yellowish, reddish, or brown. Belly hairs are generally simply slate-gray but can range from almost black to whitish orsilver. Bristly keel of lighter yellowish hairs extends from large brownish triangular nose pad about halfway to ear openings. White hairs can line nose pad and lips, and white spots or streaks can be present elsewhere on head. Incisors are extrabuccal and can be white, yellow, or orange. Smaller upper incisors tend to be darker. Kankilic and colleagues in 2014 characterized differences in bacular morphologies across chromosomal races and probable species; mean lengths for individual cytotypes were 4 - 8 - 7 - 8 mm. There are six nipples: 1 pair of pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. At least 25 chromosomal forms are known, with diploid numbers of 2 n = 36 - 62. Cytotypes do not appear to overlap geographically.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Mediterranean coastal environments, steppe, semi-deserts, and high-elevation pastures and meadows at elevations of 50 - 2900 m, most commonly 900 - 1600 m. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat avoids forest, rocky areas, and swamp and marsh habitat.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on underground plant parts, particularly bulbs, but also roots and tubers. Geranium tuberosum (Geraniaceae) has been reported as its most important food item. Individuals eat 22 - 2 - 59 - 4 % of their body weight daily. Food is stored in cache chambers in burrows, and quantity varies by season with smallest caches in summer. Mean caches are 741 - 1556 g, but 10 kg of potatoes, beets, and carrots have been found in a single burrow. Anatolian Blind Mole-rats can damage agricultural crops, but they are not particularly successful in fields with intensive plowing.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Female Anatolian Blind Mole-rats have one litter annually. In Armenia, breeding starts in January, and pregnant females have been found until May. Scrotal males are most common in March-April but have been found year-round. In Turkey, reproduction occurs in January-June and peaks in February. Gestation is 26 days, and littersize is 1 - 6 young, usually 2 - 3 young. At birth, young are 50 - 60 mm long and weigh 9 - 9 - 5 g. They are weaned at weights of c ¢. 115 g and leave nests by summer. Breeding individuals have a minimum body mass of 147 g for males and 167 g for females.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. No information.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of the Anatolian Blind Mole-rat include feeding tunnels, a nest chamber, food caches, and toilets. Feeding passages are 5 - 40 cm deep, and deeper passages are 80 - 150 cm. One or two nests are present; they are c. 20 x 20 cm and are lined with dry plant material. Nests tend to be beneath largest mounds. Highest densities are 60 ind / ha. Predators include the little owl (Athene noctua), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the tawny owl (Strix aluco), and the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca). This species is solitary.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF97BD1CFA37F42BFCC1F23F.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax nehringi) because species boundaries are so poorly understood. Taken as a whole, the Anatolian Blind Mole-ratis relatively common and known from multiple protected areas. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some chromosomal forms, for example, are extremely restricted in geographical distribution. The Anatolian Blind Mole-rate faces threats from large-scale agricultural practices, overgrazing, and habitat fragmentation.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	materials_examined	Jaffa (= Tel Aviv), Israel.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	discussion	Included in subgenus Nannospalax. Its distinct phylogenetic position relative to other forms in the genus Nannospalax has long been proposed on the basis of morphological characteristics and has since been strongly supported in molecular analyses. Nannospalax ehrenbergi represents a superspecies composed of complex allopatric, parapatric, and occasionally sympatric forms that are morphologically very similar but clearly represent distinct species. Strongest evidence that multiple good species are present in this complex comes from detailed analysis of N. ehrenbergi in Israel and Palestine by E. Nevo and colleagues in 2001 and in related studies. Four species are clearly present in Israel and Palestine, and these species were each given new names by Nevo and colleagues: golani (diploid number 2 n = 54) from the Golan Heights, galili (2 n = 52) from north-east of the Sea of Galilee, carmeli (2 n = 58) from the Sea of Galilee southward to northern West Bank in the east and farther south along coast to Tel Aviv, and judaei (2 n = 60) from Tel Aviv and northern West Bank southward. These four species differ not only in karyotype but also (often subtly) in body and cranial measurements, tooth and bacular morphology, ear ossicle shape, pelage color, habitat specialization, genetics, brain size, basal metabolic rate, urine concentrating ability, water turnover rate, relative kidney size, physiological response to cold, respiratory and circulatory physiology, mortality in captivity, timing of daily activity, exploratory behavior, and even swimming posture. Many of these differences appear to be adaptive. These four species appear to be maintained, even in narrow regions of overlap, by chromosomal incompatibilities, bacular morphology, and various behavioral barriers to reproduction involving olfaction, vocalizations, seismic communication, and differing levels of aggression. These species within the N. ehrenbergi superspecies have emerged as important model systems in evolutionary biology. A series of recent studies even suggests that sympatric speciation has taken place within galili, which suggests that these species warrant further division. Unfortunately, when Nevo and colleagues named golani, galili, carmeli, and judaei, they failed to account for the much older name ehrenbergi, noting only that its type locality, Tel Aviv, is found in the hybrid zone between carmeli and judaei. G. G. Musser and M. D. Carleton in 2005 attempted to resolve the problem of ehrenbergi superspecies taxonomy by adopting the four species of Nevo and colleagues and then applying the name ehrenbergi to populations immediately surrounding the type locality, all populations south of Israel and Palestine, and all populations north of Israel and Palestine. In contrast to their many other taxonomic recommendations, the unorthodox solution of Musser and Carleton in 2005 to the ehrenbergi taxonomy problem has not been widely adopted in subsequent mammal checklists, most of which reluctantly treat N. ehrenbergi as a single species. The name aegyptiacus by A. Nehring in 1898 is available for populations south of Israel and Palestine, and V. A. Topachevskii and others in 1969 recognized the North African forms as a distinct subspecies, aegyptiacus. B. Krystufek and V. Vohralik in 2009 noted that two names are available for populations north of Israel and Palestine, kirgisorum and intermedius, both named by Nehring in 1898. The name kirgisorum has page priority, but acquisition and provenance of type material are disputed. It was originally reported as being from Kazakhstan, well out of the known distribution of Nannospalax, but has subsequently been suggested as being from Syria. Clearly more than just one species exists to the east and north of Israel and Palestine, and future work will yield even more names. Recent molecular work further elucidates relationships among forms within the ehrenbergi superspecies: golani and galili appear to be sister taxa, carmeli and judaei form a clade with aegyptiacus, and Turkish and other northern populations are paraphyletic with respect to the four species from Israel and Palestine. The latter finding supports the hypothesis that N. ehrenbergi, and perhaps the genus Nannospalax, had its origin in Anatolia. Various sources of evidence clearly support existence of multiple species within the ehrenbergi superspecies, but unresolved taxonomic problems mean that it is still prudent to treat it as a single species. Monotypic.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	description	Descriptive notes. Head-body 130 - 220 mm, no visible externaltail; weight 73 - 252 g. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are small; males are slightly larger than females. In Israel and Palestine, individuals in cool mesic environments are larger, but the reverse appears to be true in Turkey. Egyptian individuals are smaller than those found farther north, and Libyan individuals are smaller still. Pelage color varies by soil color; it has slate-gray hairs, with dull buff, brown, or reddish tips. When worn, pelage looks uniform gray. Bristly keel of cream or yellow extends from triangular nose pad halfway to ear openings. Forefeet are brown; hindfeet are covered in gray hairs. Incisors have 2 - 3 grooves. Upper incisors are yellow to orange; lower incisors are pale yellow. Including cartilaginous base, baculum is 5 - 7 - 5 mm long and varies in shape and size by cytotype. There are four nipples: 0 pectoral + 2 pairs of inguinal. More than 30 chromosomal forms are known with diploid numbers of 2 n = 52, 54, 56, 58, and 60.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	biology_ecology	Habitat. Usually coastal Mediterranean and interior steppe habitat but also forest clearings, sandy coastal plains, mountainous areas, and some rocky habitat from sea level to elevations up to 2200 m. Although the Middle East Blind Mole-rat is present where precipitation is very low, it is absent in true desert. It is absent from the Sinai Peninsula and Nile Delta area. North African populations are fragmented and located near the coast.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	food_feeding	Food and Feeding. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat feeds primarily on tubers and bulbs of a variety of plants but also eats aboveground green plant parts. These plants are usually accessed from tunnels belowground, but occasionally individuals emerge to clip plants aboveground and carry them to burrows. Seeds and insects also have been recorded. Stored food in caches can be 25 kg.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	breeding	Breeding. Female Middle East Blind Mole-rats breed once a year, although a second litter may occur in rare instances such as during a long rainy season or in close proximity to irrigation. Males and females can be rather aggressive at first interaction, but this aggression diminishes over time and copulation occurs. Gestation is 28 - 36 days. Females construct breeding mounds, with grass-lined nests with diameters of ¢. 20 cm, located c ¢. 10 cm belowground. Peak births vary by region: early February at low elevations and early April at high elevations in Lebanon, early February and late March in Israel, and October-November in Egypt. Females give birth to 2 - 4 young that are 5 g and naked. Young disperse after c. 2 months by digging tunnels adjacent to mothers’ burrows. At high densities, young may disperse aboveground. Females probably breed in their second year. Maximum life span in captivity is 20 years.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	activity	Activity patterns. Middle East Blind Mole-rats are active year-round and ¢. 50 % of the day. During the rainy season, they appear to be diurnal and polyphasic. During dry season, they are nocturnal and monophasic. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is a chiseltooth digger. Although it can dislodge some material with head or forelimbs, almost all digging occurs with its lower incisors. Accumulated dirt is pushed to surface with head or back legs and ejected in mounds. More digging occurs in the rainy season when soil is easier to move. The Middle East Blind Mole-rat lives most ofits life underground, but it emerges and is active aboveground with some frequency in March-May and autumn. Aboveground activities include searching and foraging for food and dispersing.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	biology_ecology	Movements, Home range and Social organization. Burrows of Middle East Blind Mole-rats are 10 - 40 m long and 10 - 40 cm deep in winter and up to 1 - 5 m deep in summer. They contain a nest, toilets, and food caches. Typical mounds are 15 - 20 cm high, but breeding mounds can be 40 cm high, 160 cm long, and 135 cm wide. The Middle East Blind Mole-ratis solitary and aggressive toward conspecifics. Fights may lead to death of the loser. Densities in Israel and Palestine are 0 - 91 - 1 - 8 ind / ha. Individuals communicate seismically by head drumming and using frequencies of 50 - 100 Hz. Sounds are received by neighboring individuals pressing mandibles to tunnel walls. If an individual is removed, its territory is generally occupied by another within hours or days. Predators include the Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), domestic cats, the little owl (Athene noctua), the common barn-owl (7 yto alba), the northern long-eared owl (Asio otus), the Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo), the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), the black kite (Milvus migrans), Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata), the golden eagle (A. chrysaetos), the long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), the hooded crow (Corvus corone cornix), and the white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon SMYrnensis).	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
03AE87DDFF90BD1DFAEFFEA9F616FAEC.taxon	conservation	Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List (as Spalax ehrenbergi). The Middle East Blind Mole-rat is considered vulnerable in Turkey. It is present in agricultural areas and is considered a pest in some regions. Intensive agriculture is a threat. Multiple individual species within this superspecies probably warrant conservation concern as distinct entities. Some forms are found in protected areas, but it is probable that species exist within this complex that are not protected.	en	Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr (2017): Spalacidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 7 Rodents II. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 108-142, ISBN: 978-84-16728-04-6, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6609100
