taxonID	type	description	language	source
0386D843FFA2B13ACEEC96232494FC49.taxon	description	Food plants. Cock (2015) has reviewed the literature on food plants of Erionota spp. and found considerable confusion and indications of errors. The early stages of E. thrax and E. torus cannot be distinguished, and they are both common pests of Musa spp. Because there has been confusion between E. thrax and E. torus where the two co-occur in mainland South-East Asia, food plant records without voucher specimens can only be accepted for E. torus with full confidence where E. thrax does not occur. It is clear that like E. thrax, E. torus feeds primarily on Musa spp. There are a few published records of palms as food plants for E. torus. Robinson et al. (2001) list Caryota and Roystonea regia. In their treatment of pests of rattan palm in Peninsular Malaysia, Maziah et al. (1992) include E. torus, although Steiner (2001) and Steiner & Aminuddin (2001) subsequently indicate that this record should be treated as E. acroleuca Wood-Mason & de Nicéville (= hiraca Moore). There are internet records of E. torus using Canna sp (p). (Cannaceae) as food plants, but these have not been traced to any formal publication, and may well be derived from records for E. thrax, when the name E. torus was misapplied to that species. As documented below, the leaf shelters of E. torus (and E. thrax) can only be built using a leaf with a large flat lamina, e. g. Musa spp., Heliconia spp., some Strelitziaceae, Marantaceae, Zingiberaceae, etc. (all in the Zingiberales), and unlikely to be used on pinnate palms. Cock (2015) concluded that all food plant records of E. torus from palms should be disregarded, and although the possibility of Zingiberales other than Musa spp. being used as food plants cannot be discounted, none should be considered confirmed at this time. Life history. Reporting the establishment of E. torus in Mauritius Monty (1970 as E. thrax) includes a summary of the life history. Hoffmann (1935) and Bascombe et al. (1999) describe and illustrate the early stages of from Hong-Kong / Canton, and Igarashi & Fukuda (2000) include the life history from Japan. We include documentation of the life history from Mauritius (TCEC) and Peninsular Malaysia (MJWC). The observations reported here do not differ substantially from those for other parts of the range of E. torus or those of E. thrax (Cock 2015). Ovum. We have not documented ova. In Hong Kong and Canton, ova are 1.8 – 2.2 mm in diameter, domeshaped with 22 – 29 fine ribs stopping short of the micropyle; they are red, pink or variegated pink and yellowish white when laid, becoming paler as they develop; they are usually laid on the leaf underside, and may be laid singly, but more often in clusters of up to 30, rarely 50 (Hoffmann 1935, Bascombe et al. 1999, Plate 103.1 – 2; Figure 3). In Mauritius, TCEC noted that the female prefers to lay her ova on young banana plants. We assume that on hatching the young caterpillar eats the eggshell completely, as no hatched ova were found near them. Leaf shelters. Caterpillars roll the leaf in a way not seen in any Afrotropical species. The young caterpillars make a cut from the leaf edge, slightly curved distally or more usually basally, and roll the resultant flap under at an angle to the leaf edge (Figure 4). The older caterpillars make a similar curved cut in the leaf, starting distally and extending towards the midrib and leaf base, and roll the cut portion, extending the cut across the leaf over time. Normally the shelter is a leaf roll (Figure 5.1), but sometimes the shape is more conical (Figure 5.2); this seems to be individual variation. If it is sufficiently disturbed or meets the cut of another shelter, the caterpillar makes a new leaf roll. No evidence of eating can be seen outside the shelter, and when the tube is unrolled, the unrolled leaf does not refill the leaf space it originally occupied. The caterpillar feeds by eating the inner layers of the tube, thus avoiding the dangers inherent in emerging from its shelter. One effect of this is that the inside diameter of the tube becomes much greater than is usual in Hesperiinae tube shelters. The bottom end of the shelter is loosely sealed with silk, often retaining the frass, thus hindering access by predators. TCEC observed in Mauritius that the top of the shelter is crudely closed with silk, but must be opened when the caterpillar extends the cut, and rolls more of the leaf; old strands of silk are cut and remain visible along the cut on the leaf section not incorporated into the shelter (Figure 5.2). This detail is at variance with the description and diagrams of Makibayashi (1981), and MJWC’s observations from western Malaysia that the silk strands used to form the shelter are attached to parts of the leaf that are subsequently incorporated into the shelter (Figures 6 – 7). It is possible that this difference is associated with the conical (Figure 5.2) rather than tubular shape (Figure 5.1) of the leaf roll; the latter is normal, but the former occurs occasionally. Further observations are needed to clarify this. For pupation, the caterpillar makes an inner, wax lined, sealed pocket within the leaf roll (partially apparent in Figure 12), within which it pupates, head up, attached at the cremaster, but without a girdle. Caterpillar. All instars are pale green with a dark or black head. Figures 8 from Mauritius and 10 from Malaysia show a brown head, whereas Figure 9 from Malaysia shows a head that is almost black; this seems to be individual variation. From an early age (Figure 4.2), the caterpillar is covered with an increasingly thick layer of white powder, so that the body appears white with erect pale setae partially covered with the powder (Figures 8 – 9), and shortly before pupation, the uniformly dark head is partially obscured with the white powder (Figure 10). The caterpillar grows to 55 mm in length (Igarashi & Fukuda 2000) and is covered with white flocculence as it prepares for pupation. Pupa. The pupa (Figures 11 – 12) is up to 45 mm long, pale brown with a variable and patchy covering of white powder. The proboscis extends beyond the cremaster. The pupa is attached at the cremaster, and unlike many Hesperiinae does not construct a silk girdle.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFAAB13ECEEC974D25C5FE71.taxon	description	Food plants. Sevastopulo (unpublished) reared this species from an un-named species of Zingiberaceae in the Makadara Forest in the Shimba Hills, which he subsequently listed as Aframomum sp. (Sevastopulo 1974) and Zingiber (Sevastopulo 1975). This is almost certainly the source of repeated records of Zingiber (Kielland 1990, Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995) or both Aframomum and Zingiber (Heath et al. 2002, Vande weghe 2010). MJWC’s observations from the same locality are doubtless from the same population and food plant some 30 years later. The only food plant MJWC found there was Aframomum orientale which has individual mauve flowers at the base of the stems, and grows along the tracks, and around the edge of clearings in the Makadara Forest near the summit of the Shimba Hills. Almost certainly it is the same species which Sevastopulo recorded as Zingiber sp. and Aframomum sp. In captivity caterpillars accepted leaves of an ornamental Hedychium sp. with white flowers at the end of the leaf-frond (probably H. coronarium, native to Asia). TCEC has reared this species from unspecified Aframomum sp (p). in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique. In Cote d’Ivoire, Vuattoux (1999) reared this species from Aframomum alboviolaceum (as A. latifolium) and A. cereum (as A. sceptrum). Larsen (2005) repeats these records and writes that ‘ Condamin (mss) reports that Real bred it also from grasses (Pennisetum, Setaria and Panicum): I strongly doubt that a species could adapt to both grasses and Zingiberaceae. ’ We agree with Larsen, and recommend that these records from grasses should not be accepted. Ovum. MJWC believes that the ovum is as shown in Figure 14, although he was not able to rear this specimen. It was laid on the under surface of a 215 mm long leaf, 3 mm from the edge, and 75 mm from the tip. The ovum is 1.2 mm in diameter, quite flattened, trapezoid in cross section, due to a flat top and ten flat faces around the perimeter, separated by distinct ridges which are thickened towards the apex. The ovum hatched after 5 days and the neonate caterpillar appeared to be a typical Hesperiinae. Leaf shelters. MJWC observed that the young caterpillar cuts two notches from the edge of the leaf, and folds the resultant flap under, whereas larger caterpillars may cut a single large notch and fold a triangular flap under, normally using the distal part of the leaf, or roll the leaf from the edge without making a cut. TCEC found this last form to be typical, but whether this represents individual or geographical variation, we don’t know; systematic observations should be made. The shelters often trap water for extended periods after rain, but the caterpillars seem to suffer no ill effects. Caterpillar. The newly hatched caterpillar (from the ovum in Figure 14) was pale with a black head, 0.5 x 0.5 mm wide x high. As the caterpillar grows, subsequent instars until the penultimate instar (Figure 15.1) are translucent green, the head dark, instar n- 3 0.8 x 0.9 mm (n = 1), instar n- 2 1.25 x 1.5 mm (n = 1), instar n- 1 1.8 x 2.2 mm (n = 5) wide x high. In the final instar (Figure 15.2 – 4), the head is a narrow oval, 2.55 x 3.4 mm wide x high (n = 5), indent at vertex, dark brown-black, shiny rugose; T 1 concolorous with body; body translucent green, appearing yellow-green due to yellow dots over A 1 – A 10; subcutaneous trachea and malpighian tubules visible through cuticle; spiracles pale, inconspicuous; all legs concolorous; anal plate semi-circular with a raised rim. The caterpillars from Kenya (Figure 15.1 – 3) and north-western Zambia (Figure 15.4) showed no significant differences. Pupa. MJWC did not find the pupa in the field, but in captivity it was formed in the final leaf shelter. We have not explicitly documented whether there is a silk girdle, but S. pulvina (below) makes one, so there S. arela probably does too. We found no significant difference between the pupae from Kenya (Figure 16.3 – 6) and Zambia (Figure 16.1 – 2). A female pupa from Kenya, MJWC 89 / 25 A (Figure 16.3 – 6) measured 22 mm long; generally light brown with darker speckles; short flat-ended frontal projection; head very rugose; T 1 spiracle surrounded, except anteriorly by a raised, smooth, brown lip, bordered exteriorly by a row of beading; other spiracles brown; proboscis sheath reaches tip of abdomen; dorsally on abdomen a pair of transverse lines, one each side of dorsum in mid segment; transverse row of indistinct spots posterior to these; large dark spots on A 2 and A 3 against wings; dorsolateral spot on A 4 – A 6; final abdominal segment has a pale, raised, rugose dorsolateral ridge surrounding a smooth dorsal area. No white waxy powder. All six pupae that MJWC reared from three different collections took exactly 16 days to complete pupal development under Nairobi conditions.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFAEB121CEEC92EC2213FF4C.taxon	description	Food plants. Dickson & Kroon (1978) give the food plant as wild ginger, Siphonochilus aethiopicus (= Kaempferia aethiopica) (Zingiberaceae) in southern Africa. This record is repeated (as Kaempferia aethiopica) by Kielland (1990) and (as Kaempferia) by Larsen (1991) and Ackery et al. (1995). Pringle et al. (1994) and Heath et al. (2002) refer to the same food plant in the new combination S. aethiopicus, and Heath et al. (2002) add Aframomum sp. (Zingiberaceae), probably based on TCEC’s rearing. Larsen (2005) lists all three genera: ‘ Aframomum, Siphonochilus (Zambia) and Kaempferia ’, and Vande weghe (2010) lists the same three genera. The food plant in Kakamega Forest, western Kenya, is Aframomum zambesiacum zambesiacum, a large species which grows beside the roads and tracks over much of the area. The fruiting body is only present rarely; it is a large red body at the base of the stalks (Figure 18); MJWC saw the fruiting body once, but no flowers. TCEC reared this species from Aframomum sp. at Tukuyu (south-western Tanzania), Lulanda (forest at 1500 – 1700 m, near Mufindi, Iringa, Tanzania), Rondo (south-eastern Tanzania) and Hillwood (north-western Zambia). Where the ranges of S. arela and S. pulvina overlap, TCEC has found them on the same plants, even on the same leaf. Ovum. TCEC recorded the ovum from the Rondo Plateau (Figure 19). It is orange-brown, dome-shaped, with a strong basal flange, 13 wall-like ribs stopping short of the micropyle, and horizontal microsculpture between the ribs. Leaf shelters. These are similar to those of S. arela described above, except this species tends to fold the shelters upwards more often. The largest shelters may be formed from the basal half of a leaf with one half folded under or over along the mid-rib, and the distal portion eaten. TCEC found that S. pulvina normally cuts a flap, whereas S. arela normally rolls a leaf without making a cut. If this behaviour is followed by feeding basal and or distal to the shelter, it will appear as though the shelter construction involved a cut. As noted under S. arela, more systematic observations of shelter construction in these species would be helpful. As for S. arela, the shelters often trap water after rain, without adversely affecting the caterpillars. Caterpillar. The final instar caterpillar of individual MJWC 89 / 37 B (which subsequently died) measured 24 mm (Figure 20.2 – 3); head 2.2 x 2.7 mm wide x high (n = 10), oval, indent at vertex; brown, with a lighter brown stripe on the epicranium each side of epicranial suture and on outer edge of adfrontals and the clypeus, laterally to stemmata; rugose, shiny. T 1 with a very narrow, inconspicuous brown band on pronotum, otherwise concolorous with body. Body translucent dull dark green, the subcutaneous trachea visible through the cuticle; a brown dorsolateral stripe, continuous T 1 – A 1, narrower A 1 – A 4, starting to break up A 5 – A 8, upturned on A 8; a ventrolateral flange to body; spiracles pale, may be quite conspicuous, linked by visible trachea; all legs concolorous. The instar lasts 14 – 17 days, and the body turns brown before pupation (Figure 20.4). Caterpillars from Zambia (Figure 20.5) would be placed in a separate, southern subspecies by T. B. Larsen (above); they were similar to those of what would be the nominate subspecies, but the brown of the head may have more of a red tone. The penultimate instar caterpillar MJWC 89 / 37 D is similar (Figure 20.1) but the head is 1.6 x 1.8 mm wide x high (n = 4) uniformly brown apart from a diffuse area at apex and the clypeus and lower frons being light brown; the dorsolateral line is less pronounced. The fourth instar lasts about 12 days. In instar n- 2, the light brown head measured 1.1 x 1.2 mm wide x high (n = 2). The final instar caterpillar and pupa of Xanthodisca vibius (Hewitson) which feeds on the same food plant are very similar, and differences are discussed under that species. Pupa. The pupa (Figure 21) is similar to that of S. arela, but lacks the frontal projection, and the proboscis extends 2 – 3 segments beyond the wing cases. The pupa is attached at the cremaster to a solid bar of silk, across the wall of the shelter, and there is a weak silk girdle. A Kenyan pupa (MJWC 90 / 37 A, Figure 21.1) probably formed a week previously had the head and appendages dull brown; abdomen light chestnut brown; spiracle T 1 light chestnut, similar in structure to that of S. arela, the central hole 0.3 mm in diameter and the variably brown border about 0.5 mm wide; a small dark patch around spiracles A 4 – A 6. Pupae are variably speckled, some having almost no speckles, others heavily speckled. Some pupae have irregular dark spots subdorsally above the T 1 spiracle, and dorsolaterally on the anterior margin of T 3 and A 1 (similar to Xanthodisca vibius discussed below). The pupal stage lasts about 17 days (range 9 - 21). A Zambian pupa (Figure 21.2 – 3) is similar but the border of the T 1 spiracle is brown, and the abdomen has a darker lateral line, which appears to be due to the colouring of the dorsolateral line of the caterpillar persisting in a recently formed pupa. No white waxy powder.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB2B121CEEC90D52474F9CE.taxon	description	The late T. B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2015) re-examined the members of the genus, and concluded that X. ariel probably belongs to one of the Madagascan endemic genera (Perrotia or Miraja), whereas astrape is not related to any other genus, so he planned to describe new genus to hold it. The food plants of ariel are unknown but Larsen suggests they will be found to be bamboos, whereas X. vibius and X. rega feed on Aframomum spp. (Zingiberaceae) and X. astrape feeds on Marantaceae, and is treated below in the section on Marantaceae feeders. Contrary to what Aurivillius (1925) and Evans (1937) thought, Xanthodisca is not closely related to Pardaleodes, a grass-feeding genus treated in Cock & Congdon (2014), rather it shows clear affinities with the other Zingiberaceae-feeders treated here, especially Semalea (above).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB2B127CEEC974E2378FC6C.taxon	description	Food plants. Le Pelley (1959) gives Amomum sp. as the food plant in Uganda, a record apparently repeated by Sevastopulo (1975), Kielland (1990) and Ackery et al. (1995). MJWC reared this species from Aframomum zambesiacum zambesiacum, the normal food plant of Semalea pulvina in Kakamega Forest. TCEC has reared this species from the Rondo Plateau, south-east Tanzania and at Kihansi, south central Tanzania, from Aframomum sp. The former may be the origin of the record of Aframomum in Heath et al. (2002). It seems likely that the early record from Amomum should be referred to Aframomum. Caterpillar. MJWC reared this species once from the final instar from amongst a batch of S. pulvina caterpillars collected from Kakamega Forest 1 July 1990 (MJWC 90 / 70 G). He did not notice any differences in the shelters or caterpillars at the time, and was surprised when one pupa produced a female X. vibius. Examination of the cast head capsule revealed no qualitative difference between these two species; the clypeus, frons, adfrontals and a stripe down the epicranial suture light brown; the rest of the epicranium rugose, the raised areas darker brown and the pits lighter brown; posterior margin basally pale; it measured 2.2 x 2.75 mm wide x high, almost exactly the same as that of the final instar of S. pulvina (2.2 x 2.7 mm). TCEC has reared this species at Kihansi and the Rondo Plateau, Tanzania, from Aframomum sp. It can be seen that the caterpillar (Figure 22) does indeed resemble those of S. pulvina, but was noted to be more squat, green, and with a squared off anal plate with a dark transverse mark. Pupa. The 18 mm pupa that MJWC reared is very similar to that of S. pulvina, but the most obvious difference is in the dimensions of the semi-circular body around the T 1 spiracle: the central hole measured 0.67 mm across ventrally-dorsally, and the rim measured 0.5 mm across dorsally, 0.5 mm posteriorly and 0.28 mm ventrally. In addition (based on the emerged pupae of both) the pupa of X. vibius is more uniformly pale compared to that of S. pulvina; an irregular dark mark subdorsally between the T 1 spiracles, another dorsolaterally on the anterior margin of T 3, A 1 and A 4 - A 6; proboscis reaches to the end of the penultimate abdominal segment. The pupa took 19 days until the adult emerged. The pupa documented by TCEC from Kihansi (Figure 23) is similar, but is darker and the distribution of dark markings differs, suggesting there is probably significant individual variation in colouring.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB4B127CEEC93F522C5F902.taxon	description	The leaf shelter was on one of the lower leaves; only the basal third of the leaf remained, and it was folded upwards along the midrib. About four days before the prepupa, the caterpillar was 30 mm long; head brown, slightly paler adjacent epicranial suture; rugose; widest nearer base, 2.4 x 2.7 mm wide x high; body translucent dull, dark green, the dorsal line darker, brown gonads visible on A 5; anal plate with an unusual black dot on the posterior margin; spiracles pale; all legs concolorous. The 18 mm pupa (Figure 24) had a transverse row of three very short frontal projections (Figure 24.2); thorax brown, abdomen whitish brown; T 1 spiracle surrounded by a dark brown C-shaped rim similar to that of X. vibius, the central hole measured 0.66 mm across ventrally-dorsally, and the rim measured 0.46 mm across dorsally, 0.22 m posteriorly and 0.42 mm ventrally, i. e. rather narrower than that of X. vibius; a white streak just anterodorsal to T 1 spiracle. The adult emerged after 18 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB5B124CEEC916525F3FFA9.taxon	description	Food plants. Larsen (1991) indicates that one species of Hypoleucis is recorded from Costus; this is probably based on MJWC’s records for H. ophiusa (below). Vuattoux (1999) reared this species six times at Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire from Costus afer and Paracostus englerianus (= Costus englerianus, see Specht & Stevenson 2006). Larsen (2005) describes finding caterpillars on C. afer at Obudu Town, Nigeria (Oct 1996): the leaf shelters are made of ‘ rolled leaves and the caterpillar devours three-quarters of the leaf before changing shelter, and on this occasion almost defoliated the plant. Pupation took place at the very base of a leaf, attached by the cremaster at the stem of the food plant, without making a shelter’. The lack of a shelter may reflect the lack of leaves rather than normal biology (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015). Vande weghe (2010) gives the food plant as Costus. MJWC reared H. ophiusa in Côte d'Ivoire (MJWC 89 / 213) and Cameroon (MJWC 90 / 207) on Costus sp (p). The food plant in Cameroon was also the food plant of Caenides dacena and is shown in Figure 28 under that species; it was identified as either Costus afer or C. lucanusianus. Caterpillars did not accept Hedychium sp. (Zingiberaceae) in captivity. The following observations were made on two caterpillars collected in the Forêt du Yapo, Côte d’Ivoire in June 1989 (MJWC 89 / 213), except the head and spiracle measurements are the average of all material available. Leaf shelters. The leaf shelters are distinctive; a leaf of about 150 - 200 mm length is cut diagonally at about 1 / 3 from base, from one margin, through the mid-rib to within a 10 mm of the other margin; the hanging distal portion is then rolled upwards to make a tubular shelter of about 5 mm diameter, and 50 - 80 mm length. The leaf shelter found near Douala, Cameroon (MJWC 90 / 207) was noted to be similar. Caterpillar. The penultimate and n- 2 instars are translucent dark green with a black, rugose head, paler ventrally (Figure 26.1); the head of the former measured 0.8 x 1.2 mm wide x high, and of the later 1.8 x 2.1 mm. The final instar (Figure 26.2 – 3) measured 21 mm about half way through the instar; head 2.3 x 3.3 wide x high, indent at vertex, widest towards base; rugose; very light brown with brown line adjacent to epicranial suture and from vertex laterally to stemmata; brown line down centre of each epicranium; half of adfrontals against frons brown. Body dull, translucent green, dorsal line darker; pronotum a narrow black plate on posterior margin T 1, stopping short of the spiracles; spiracles light brown, those of T 1 and A 8 more conspicuous; pale subcutaneous patch around and above spiracle A 8; all legs concolorous except those of T 1 slightly brown. Pupa. MJWC found that in captivity the pupa is formed in the last caterpillar leaf shelter. No description was prepared of the pupa from life. It is similar in shape to those of Semalea spp. and Xanthodisca spp., but the colour is light green apart from a dark dorsal line on thorax and abdomen, brown spiracles and the light brown rim to the spiracle of T 1 (Figure 27). The emerged pupa is white. The rim of spiracle T 1 measures 0.44 mm dorsally, 0.42 mm ventrally, 0.29 mm posteriorly and the hole is 0.34 mm wide dorsoventrally. The pupa took 20 days to complete development, while another from Cameroon (MJWC 90 / 207) took 26 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB7B12BCEEC951122B5FE53.taxon	description	Lindsey & Miller (1965) and Ackery et al. (1995) treated Leona as a synonym of Caenides, but Larsen (2005) treated it as a valid genus. Based on the male genitalia (uncus pointed in Caenides and bifid in Leona) and some external characters they do seem to divide into these two groups, apart from L. lissa Evans which feeds on Dracaena spp. (Cock et al. 2015) and L. luehderi (Plötz) for which the food plants are unknown; these two species may require a separate genus (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB8B12ACEEC944D2480FE70.taxon	description	We note that Sevastopulo was familiar with the penultimate instar, so there seems little possibility that this food plant is in error, due to a ‘ wandering larva’ as suggested by Larsen & Collins (2011). Where Sevastopulo refers to the head as heart-shaped, his photographs indicate an oval head indent at the apex, rather than heartshaped, which would imply that it is significantly wider in the dorsal half than the ventral half. The description of the pupa and the white wax on the pupa and in the pupal leaf shelter are similar to what we have reported for C. dacela (Cock et al. 2014). The ‘ crescent shaped, rugose, raised mark immediately behind’ the prothoracic spiracle, sounds like that noted for C. dacena below (and C. dacela). Vuattoux (1999) records rearing one specimen from oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, and capturing a second in gallery forest of Bandama [River] (Un seul élevage a été réalisé sur le palmier à huile Elaeis guineensis. Un autre adulte a été capturé dans la forêt galerie du Bandama le 2 mai 1972). MJWC re-examined the voucher specimen for the second of these, and found that it is actually a male C. dacela, which is a known palm-feeder (Cock et al. 2014). It seems reasonable to assume that the specimen reared from oil palm is also C. dacela, and that MJWC managed to list the wrong name for this identification which he made for R. Vuattoux (the species are too distinct to suggest an error in identification). Caenides soritia is, therefore, only reliably recorded from a Zingiberaceae food plant. Unlike C. dacena treated next, it has not been suggested that C. soritia is misplaced with the remaining palm and Marantaceae-feeding Caenides spp.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB9B129CEEC91D4253EFAFF.taxon	materials_examined	In his key to Caenides, Evans (1937) treats C. dacena has having neither a hindwing hair tuft nor a forewing brand. However, the material reared by MJWC from Cameroon has a distinct forewing brand in space 2, starting below vein 3 half way between the origin of vein 3 and the spot in space 3, running adjacent to vein 3 and then adjacent to the cell, before turning away from the cell to meet vein two, with a short broad extension below vein 2 in space 1 b. SCC examined material in ABRI collected from Côte d’Ivoire to Uganda, and found that two-thirds of males had a brand visible using a hand lens, although this was most obvious when the wings were at a slight angle to the viewer, i. e. with wings depressed or slightly sprung. It may be that the brand is not always present, that it is only obvious in newly emerged specimens, or could more than one species be involved? Food plants. Vuattoux (1999) reared this species four times in Côte d’Ivoire from Costus afer (Costaceae). This record is repeated by Vande weghe (2010). MJWC reared a specimen from the Costus sp. shown in Figure 28, near Douala, Cameroon (MJWC 90 / 206). In discussion with Martin Cheek (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), we concluded that this photograph represents either C. afer or C. lucanusianus, although the latter has also been treated as a synonym of C. afer and / or C. maculatus (Tropicos 2014). In captivity, two caterpillars in the final instar completed feeding when offered leaves of Hedychium sp. and Aframomum sp. but the resultant adults were significantly smaller than others reared through on Costus.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB9B129CEEC91D4253EFAFF.taxon	description	Leaf shelters. The one-cut shelters of the penultimate and final instar caterpillars are made with a cut from the edge of the leaf lamina to close to the midrib, and the distal part of the leaf is then folded upwards. Caterpillar. The penultimate instar caterpillar had a uniformly black or very dark brown head; rugose; 2.5 x 2.9 mm wide x high (n = 2). The final instar caterpillar (Figure 29) measured 38 mm, five days before pupation. Head 3.6 x 4.4 mm wide x high (n = 4); indented at vertex; shiny, rugose; very dark brown, except for indistinct dark brown markings: a line down the centre of the frons, a line parallel and close to epicranial suture and a weaker line down face below the apex, which is not always present. These head markings are easily overlooked in life. Their distribution is reminiscent of those of Hypoleucis ophiusa (Figure 26). Pronotum brown. Body transparent greenbrown; darker dorsal line; rest of body with pale fat bodies showing through cuticle; anal plate dark with pale margin; spiracles light brown, not conspicuous; all legs concolorous. The body becomes brown ventrally at the end of the final instar; the wax glands are restricted to the anterior ventral margin of A 1 according to MJWC’s notes, but it would be worth confirming this unusual distribution. Pupa. The pupa is formed in the final leaf shelter. It was not described, but it was photographed (Figure 30). The proboscis extends to at least the base of the cremaster, sometimes to the tip. There is a pale brown C-shaped raised rim around the posterior side of the T 1 spiracle, measuring 0.7 mm across dorsoventrally, and variably 0.4 – 0.6 mm across the rim; this rim surrounds a dark brown conical pit. This feature is also present in C. dacela (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 55). The pupal stage lasted 25 – 29 days.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBBB128CEEC908B22ECF8FB.taxon	description	The genus Rhabdomantis comprises two species and only differs from Osmodes in the absence of any brand on the hindwing and in the appearance, particularly in the absence of silvery spots on the hindwing below according to Evans (1937). Although Larsen (2005) suggests there are affinities between the genitalia of Rhabdomantis and Osmodes, he subsequently changed his view, considering the genitalia to be very different (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2014, 2015). The type species, R. galatia (Hewitson) is found from Sierra Leone to western Uganda (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995). Vuattoux (1999) reports rearing a single specimen from Trachyphrynium braunianum (Marantaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire. This record is repeated by Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010). There is no other information on the biology of this genus. As discussed above under Xanthodisca, the late T. B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2015) planned to establish a new genus for X. astrape, a species that had been placed in Xanthodisca but is not closely related to this or any other genera of Hesperiinae incertae sedis. We have not reared this species, but Vuattoux (1999) reared one specimen from T. braunianum (Marantaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire; this record is repeated in Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010). Unfortunately we have no further information on the early stages of this genus. Caenides kangvensis has been reared from the lily Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae, formerly Liliaceae) and Thalia geniculata (= T. welwitschii) (Marantaceae) (Vuattoux 1999), but the early stages have not been documented. As noted above, other Caenides spp. feed on Arecaceae, Zingiberaceae and Costaceae.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBBB12DCEEC95322384F94D.taxon	description	1 This record may refer to O. lindseyi Miller (Larsen 2005); it is unlikely to be O. adosus which is not recorded from Uganda. MJWC collected a prepupa on Sarcophrynium brachystachys (Marantaceae) (MJWC 316), 3 June 1989 (MJWC 89 / 214). The leaf shelter was made on a leaf of 29 cm long x 13 cm wide; there was extensive feeding from much of one margin about half way to the midrib, and a long narrow flap was folded under to form the pupal shelter (Figure 33). The shelter was lined with silk lightly sprinkled with white waxy powder, and the pupa was held with a simple silk girdle. The prepupa head measured 2.9 x 3.2 mm wide x high; light brown; a black spot 0.9 x 1.2 mm centrally on the upper part of the face, extending to overlap the top of the adfrontals, but not on them; a similar smaller spot ventrolaterally covering the stemmata and extending dorsally in a pear shape; light dusting of white waxy powder on lower part of head including ventrolateral spot. Pronotum light brown. Body light green, dorsal line darker; spiracles light brown, conspicuous; all legs concolorous. There were ventral wax glands, but their distribution could not be recorded without disturbing the prepupa. The pupa (Figure 34) was 23 mm long; elongate, with a blunt translucent frontal spike of 1.4 mm, and the proboscis projecting beyond the cremaster; light bright green through a translucent cuticle; marked in blackdorsal line mostly a series of diffuse lines from A 1 – A 8, but sharp in short sections on T 1, anterior to a quadrate spot at rear of thorax, and heavy line on A 9; row of 7 dorsolateral dots on A 1 – A 7, and 8 lateral spots on T 2, T 3 and A 2 - A 8; T 1 spiracle convex, the central area, 0.8 mm in diameter consists of densely packed light brown rods, and is surrounded by a narrow white margin, widest anteriorly and narrowest posteriorly. The cuticle of the emerged pupa was transparent and fragile. The head markings of the caterpillar and especially the form and markings of the pupa are unique in our experience, suggesting that Osmodes is not closely related to any other Afrotropical genera for which the early stages have been documented. This view is supported by the distinctive genitalia (T. B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015).	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBEB112CEEC97A72706F815.taxon	description	Food plants. Vuattoux (1999) reports reared it (as G. cylindrica) at Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire: five times on Thalia geniculata (= T. welwitschii), and once each on Trachyphrynium braunianum and Marantochloa cuspidata (all Marantaceae). Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010) repeat these food plant records. MJWC’s material (90 / 212) was collected on a Marantaceae (probably Marantochloa sp.) in a propagation building at the Botanic Gardens, Entebbe. Leaf shelters. Small caterpillars make a shelter of a slight fold in the leaf in mid-lamina; they are clearly visible under several strands of silk which hold the fold in place. This shelter is reminiscent of that partially documented for the first instar of G. balenge (Holland) (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 39). Larger caterpillars make a larger fold from the edge of the portion of leaf where they have been feeding. Two emerged pupa were collected; they were found without a shelter on the leaf underside against the mid-rib, suspended by the cremaster and a multi-stranded silk girdle under the anterior part of A 4. Caterpillars. A small caterpillar probably in instar n- 3 was photographed but not described (Figure 35.1); it appears similar to the penultimate instar described below, except that the white waxy flocculence is much heavier on the head, the colour and markings of which cannot be seen. Preserved n- 3 head capsules measured 1.55 x 1.8 mm wide x high (n = 2), while an n- 2 measured 1.8 x 2.1 mm. This young caterpillar is reminiscent of the caterpillars of G. balenge (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 40), but much less extreme. A 14 mm caterpillar (MJWC 90 / 212 B) was thought to be in the penultimate instar (Figure 35.2 – 3). Head 2.3 x 2.8 mm wide x high (n = 3); wider near base; brown with dark brown stripe down centre of face; covered with very long, erect, white setae up to 1.6 mm long. Body dull green, covered from T 2 to A 8 or A 9 with white waxy powder; a pair of subdorsal spots on posterior margin of T 3 - A 7 and weakly on A 8 are due to the absence of white waxy powder. A 21 mm caterpillar (MJWC 90 / 212 D) was considered to be in the final instar (Figure 36). Head large, 3.5 x 4.8 mm wide x high (n = 3); light brown, slightly darker ventrally; a dark triangle from vertex to posterior margin; an inverted V-shape on the upper adfrontals, sharp against the adfrontal suture, diffuse internally; apex of frons dark against frontal suture; frontal sutures very narrowly dark; covered in very long, white, erect setae, mostly about 0.8 mm but up to 1.6 mm. Body white with a green tint; covered with setae as head; no markings, except a slightly darker subdorsal line on T 1 – T 3. Pupa. None of the caterpillars were reared through to the pupa, but two emerged pupae (Figure 37) were collected with final instar head capsules identical to those documented (Figure 36), so we have no doubt about the association. Emerged pupa at least 20 mm long; the proboscis does not extend significantly beyond the wings; cuticle pale brown almost transparent with the segmental junctions darker; a bump on the frons projects about 0.4 mm; two tufts of about ten 2.4 mm long erect brown setae side by side on bump; similar tufts above with 10 – 15 setae; ventroanteriorly two more tufts of about 8 – 10 setae below the ones on the bump; lateral to the frontal bump a much larger clump of similar setae on the anterior part of the eye; long pale, erect setae on dorsum and in two dorsolateral tufts on T 2; similar pale setae on dorsum and laterally on abdomen segments; subdorsally on the abdomen there are curious oval pale brown structures, 1.6 x 0.8 mm aligned transversely, which at first sight look like conspicuous spiracles; these are placed on A 1 (1), A 2 – A 3 (2), A 4 – A 6 (1); where two pairs occur on a segment, the anterior ones are placed nearer the dorsum; dorsolateral line of small spots near posterior margin on A 2 – A 7; spiracles brown, inconspicuous; ventral half with layer of white waxy powder.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBEB112CEEC97A72706F815.taxon	discussion	Discussion. The affinities in morphology of the caterpillar of G. cylinda with those known for other Gretna spp. (Cock et al. 2014) have been pointed out. The pupa shows no close affinities with the known Afrotropical species, and the origin and function of the unique subdorsal structures on the abdomen are unknown. The pupation site on the underside of the food plant leaf against the midrib without a shelter is very unusual; it may occur in Hypoleucis ophiusa as suggested by Larsen (2005) but it has not been documented for any other Afrotropical species. These features, together with the Marantaceae food plant distinguish this species from the palm-feeding Gretna spp., supporting the view that they are not congeneric in spite of the similarity of the caterpillars to those of G. carmen.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FF81B117CEEC955E2475FC31.taxon	description	Food plants. The food plant is a species of Strelitzia (Strelitziaceae). Strelitziaceae includes three genera, all occurring in tropical to subtropical regions: Strelitzia with 5 species in southern Africa, Ravenala with a single species indigenous to Madagascar, and Phenakospermum with a single species in northern South America. The best known species is the bird-of-paradise flower Strelitzia reginae, grown for its flowers worldwide in tropical and subtropical gardens, but this does not seem to be a normal food plant for M. fiara, although SCC was able to rear caterpillars through on this plant in captivity. The other species of Strelitzia have less colourful flowers, but may be grown for their striking foliage (Wikipedia 2014). The first food plant record is that of Leigh (1910) from ‘ wild banana’ which refers to S. nicolai, also known as the giant white bird-of-paradise, and this is also the food plant listed in recent works (Dickson & Kroon 1978, Migdoll 1988, Pringle et al. 1994, Henning et al. 1997, Woodhall 2005). However, in his list of food plants of South African Lepidoptera, Platt (1921) lists only S. augusta, which is a synonym of S. alba, the white bird-ofparadise. Murray (1932) presents the information of Leigh (1910), but refers to the food plant as S. augusta (i. e. S. alba), and uses this name again later (Murray 1959). Strelitzia alba and S. nicolai are both arborescent species with white flowers, and it would seem that in this context, entomologists misapplied the former name in the middle of last century. Life history. Leigh (1910) provided a fairly detailed description of the life history that was not improved until G. C. Clark’s detailed life history plate was published (Dickson & Kroon 1978, Plate 28). Subsequently Migdoll (1988) provided photographs of the caterpillar and food plant, and Henning et al. (1997) of the caterpillar and pupa. We cannot add anything significant to these, but include SCC’s photographs of the penultimate and final instar caterpillar and pupa for comparison with other Hesperiinae incertae sedis. The ovum is reported to be 2.0 x 1.8 mm diameter x height, with ‘ 30 - 40 longitudinal ribs, a third of which stop part of the way up the side, the remainder joining in pairs to form a single very short rib just short of the micropyle’ (G. C. Clark in Dickson & Kroon 1978). The caterpillar (Figure 38) is distinctive due to the orange markings around spiracles A 1 – A 8, variable dark late instar head markings, and the variable dark anal plate, especially in the third to penultimate instars. The pupating caterpillar and pupa are covered with white waxy powder. Natural enemies. G. C. Clark (in Dickson & Kroon 1978) records that a tachinid, Thecocarcelia incedens (Rondani) has been reared from the pupa –– the same species was also reared from Artitropa erinnyis erinnyis (Trimen), as discussed in (Cock et al. 2015). Based on an ovum preserved in ABRI (on Strelitzia, Margate, Natal, South Africa, 28 Nov 1998), there is also at least one egg parasitoid that attacks M. fiara.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FF81B117CEEC955E2475FC31.taxon	discussion	Discussion. As noted in the introduction to Moltena above, De Jong (1986) found that based on an analysis of adult characters Chondrolepis seems to form a monophyletic group with Ploetzia and Moltena, with Zophopetes as their nearest relative. We have illustrated the early stages of the sole species of Ploetzia and three species of Zophopetes in Cock et al. (2014), and of four species of Chondrolepis in Cock & Congdon (2014). The food plants are varied: P. amygdalis (Mabille) and Zophopetes spp. are palm-feeders, Chondrolepis spp. are grass feeders and M. fiara feeds on Strelitzia. We have not examined ova of Chondrolepis spp., but the ova of Ploetzia, Zophopetes and Moltena are all dome-shaped and ribbed, although the detail of the number and arrangement of the ribs is variable. The caterpillars of all four genera are broadly similar, although only M. fiara has the dark anal plate and orange spots around the A 1 – A 8 spiracles and Chondrolepis spp. have more conspicuous setae especially on the head. The pupae of Ploetzia, Zophopetes and Moltena are all similar, having no real distinguishing features, being similar in shape, attached at the cremaster and with white waxy powder. In contrast, the pupae of Chondrolepis spp., which are formed in shelters of rolled grass leaves, are more cylindrical, have a short down-turned frontal projection, have more developed setae dorsally and on the abdomen, lie free in the pupal chamber, are not attached at the cremaster, and have little or no white waxy powder. On balance, the early stages would seem to indicate that Ploetzia, Zophopetes and Moltena show clear affinities, but Chondrolepis are somewhat separated, although to some degree, this difference may be a reflection of adaptations by Chondrolepis spp. to feeding on a relatively soft grass, and making a tight pupal chamber.	en	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
