identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
0386D843FFA2B13ACEEC96232494FC49.text	0386D843FFA2B13ACEEC96232494FC49.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Erionota torus Evans 1941	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Erionota torus Evans 1941</p>
            <p> Much of the following background is based on a recent critical literature review of the pest  Erionota spp. by Cock (2015).  Erionota torus (Figure 2) is indigenous in northern India, Nepal, north-eastern India to southern China and Peninsular Malaysia, but it spread to Mauritius around 1968 (reported as  E. thrax (Linnaeus)) , southern Japan in 1971, Taiwan in 1986, the southern Philippines probably in the early 1980s and has just been found in the Western Ghats of India. </p>
            <p> Erionota thrax is well known as the banana skipper of South-East Asia, and as an introduced pest in various Pacific territories. However, applied entomologists mostly overlooked that Evans (1941) described  E. torus , which he differentiated from  E. thrax on male wing shape and genitalia, but having very similar females. Inoué &amp; Kawazoé (1970) illustrate the genitalia of both sexes. Both species occur in mainland South-East Asia and both are common and feed on banana, but only  E. thrax appears in the applied literature. Hence, it is not surprising that when ‘the banana skipper’ appeared in Mauritius, two female specimens sent to the Commonwealth Institute of Entomology were misidentified as  E. thrax . Subsequent material collected in Mauritius and deposited in The Natural History Museum, London, as  E. thrax includes two males and a female collected by P.M.H. Davis at Black River in 1979, and reported in Davis &amp; Barnes (1991), all of which are  E. torus , leading to the conclusion that unless fresh collections can show that both species are present, only  E. torus actually occurs in Mauritius (Cock 2015). </p>
            <p> Biological control in Mauritius. Waterhouse &amp; Norris (1989) provide a detailed review of the implementation of successful biological control against  E. torus (as  E. thrax ) in Mauritius (Monty 1977) and  E. thrax in the Pacific. There are numerous natural enemies in the indigenous range of  E. thrax and  E. torus , and several have been considered for use as biological control agents (Waterhouse &amp; Norris 1989, Cock 2015). Selected parasitoids of  E. thrax in Sabah were sent to Mauritius in 1971–1973 and a larval parasitoid  Cotesia erionotae (Wilkinson) (=  Apanteles erionotae ,  Braconidae ), and egg parasitoid  Ooencyrtus pallidipes (Ashmead) (=  O. erionotae Ferrière ,  Encyrtidae ) became established. These parasitoids quickly provided effective biological control. In 1975 a cyclone severely damaged banana plants and drastically reduced banana skipper and parasitoid populations but nevertheless the banana skipper population built up again in 1976. None of the parasites established earlier was recovered in the two years following the cyclone, but damage to banana by the skipper was recorded as being very low in 1978 and it remained uncommon thereafter. Davis &amp; Barnes (1991) report that specimens of  E. torus (as  E. thrax ) were taken on the west coast of Mauritius in 1979, but it was not seen elsewhere between the years 1976 and 1980, so that its status was considered unclear. ABRI collectors found early stages in 2014, so  E. torus continues as an uncommon species of no significant pest status in Mauritius, almost certainly kept under effective biological control by its introduced parasitoids. None of the other species of  Hesperiidae found on Mauritius are known to be parasitized by the parasitoid species introduced against  E. torus (J. Monty pers. comm. 1987 in Waterhouse &amp; Norris 1989). </p>
            <p> Food plants. Cock (2015) has reviewed the literature on food plants of  Erionota spp. and found considerable confusion and indications of errors. The early stages of  E. thrax and  E. torus cannot be distinguished, and they are both common pests of  Musa spp. Because there has been confusion between  E. thrax and  E. torus where the two co-occur in mainland South-East Asia, food plant records without voucher specimens can only be accepted for  E. torus with full confidence where  E. thrax does not occur. It is clear that like  E. thrax ,  E. torus feeds primarily on  Musa spp. </p>
            <p> There are a few published records of palms as food plants for  E. torus . Robinson et al. (2001) list  Caryota and  Roystonea regia . In their treatment of pests of rattan palm in Peninsular Malaysia, Maziah et al. (1992) include  E. torus , although Steiner (2001) and Steiner &amp; Aminuddin (2001) subsequently indicate that this record should be treated as  E. acroleuca Wood-Mason &amp; de Nicéville (= hiraca Moore). There are internet records of  E. torus using  Canna sp(p). (  Cannaceae ) as food plants, but these have not been traced to any formal publication, and may well be derived from records for  E. thrax , when the name  E. torus was misapplied to that species. </p>
            <p> As documented below, the leaf shelters of  E. torus (and  E. thrax ) can only be built using a leaf with a large flat lamina, e.g.  Musa spp.,  Heliconia spp., some  Strelitziaceae ,  Marantaceae ,  Zingiberaceae , etc. (all in the  Zingiberales ), and unlikely to be used on pinnate palms. Cock (2015) concluded that all food plant records of  E. torus from palms should be disregarded, and although the possibility of  Zingiberales other than  Musa spp. being used as food plants cannot be discounted, none should be considered confirmed at this time. </p>
            <p> Life history. Reporting the establishment of  E. torus in Mauritius Monty (1970 as  E. thrax ) includes a summary of the life history. Hoffmann (1935) and Bascombe et al. (1999) describe and illustrate the early stages of from Hong-Kong / Canton, and Igarashi &amp; Fukuda (2000) include the life history from Japan. We include documentation of the life history from Mauritius (TCEC) and Peninsular Malaysia (MJWC). The observations reported here do not differ substantially from those for other parts of the range of  E. torus or those of  E. thrax (Cock 2015) . </p>
            <p>Ovum. We have not documented ova. In Hong Kong and Canton, ova are 1.8–2.2mm in diameter, domeshaped with 22–29 fine ribs stopping short of the micropyle; they are red, pink or variegated pink and yellowish white when laid, becoming paler as they develop; they are usually laid on the leaf underside, and may be laid singly, but more often in clusters of up to 30, rarely 50 (Hoffmann 1935, Bascombe et al. 1999, Plate 103.1–2; Figure 3). In Mauritius, TCEC noted that the female prefers to lay her ova on young banana plants. We assume that on hatching the young caterpillar eats the eggshell completely, as no hatched ova were found near them.</p>
            <p>Leaf shelters. Caterpillars roll the leaf in a way not seen in any Afrotropical species. The young caterpillars make a cut from the leaf edge, slightly curved distally or more usually basally, and roll the resultant flap under at an angle to the leaf edge (Figure 4).</p>
            <p> The older caterpillars make a similar curved cut in the leaf, starting distally and extending towards the midrib and leaf base, and roll the cut portion, extending the cut across the leaf over time. Normally the shelter is a leaf roll (Figure 5.1), but sometimes the shape is more conical (Figure 5.2); this seems to be individual variation. If it is sufficiently disturbed or meets the cut of another shelter, the caterpillar makes a new leaf roll. No evidence of eating can be seen outside the shelter, and when the tube is unrolled, the unrolled leaf does not refill the leaf space it originally occupied. The caterpillar feeds by eating the inner layers of the tube, thus avoiding the dangers inherent in emerging from its shelter. One effect of this is that the inside diameter of the tube becomes much greater than is usual in  Hesperiinae tube shelters. The bottom end of the shelter is loosely sealed with silk, often retaining the frass, thus hindering access by predators. TCEC observed in Mauritius that the top of the shelter is crudely closed with silk, but must be opened when the caterpillar extends the cut, and rolls more of the leaf; old strands of silk are cut and remain visible along the cut on the leaf section not incorporated into the shelter (Figure 5.2). This detail is at variance with the description and diagrams of Makibayashi (1981), and MJWC’s observations from western Malaysia that the silk strands used to form the shelter are attached to parts of the leaf that are subsequently incorporated into the shelter (Figures 6–7). It is possible that this difference is associated with the conical (Figure 5.2) rather than tubular shape (Figure 5.1) of the leaf roll; the latter is normal, but the former occurs occasionally. Further observations are needed to clarify this. </p>
            <p>For pupation, the caterpillar makes an inner, wax lined, sealed pocket within the leaf roll (partially apparent in Figure 12), within which it pupates, head up, attached at the cremaster, but without a girdle.</p>
            <p>Caterpillar. All instars are pale green with a dark or black head. Figures 8 from Mauritius and 10 from Malaysia show a brown head, whereas Figure 9 from Malaysia shows a head that is almost black; this seems to be individual variation. From an early age (Figure 4.2), the caterpillar is covered with an increasingly thick layer of white powder, so that the body appears white with erect pale setae partially covered with the powder (Figures 8–9), and shortly before pupation, the uniformly dark head is partially obscured with the white powder (Figure 10). The caterpillar grows to 55mm in length (Igarashi &amp; Fukuda 2000) and is covered with white flocculence as it prepares for pupation.</p>
            <p> Pupa. The pupa (Figures 11–12) is up to 45mm long, pale brown with a variable and patchy covering of white powder. The proboscis extends beyond the cremaster. The pupa is attached at the cremaster, and unlike many  Hesperiinae does not construct a silk girdle. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFA2B13ACEEC96232494FC49	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFAAB139CEEC91D722CEF9CF.text	0386D843FFAAB139CEEC91D722CEF9CF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Semalea Holland 1896	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Semalea Holland, 1896</p>
            <p> Holland (1896) established this genus with  S. pulvina (Plötz) as type species, together with  S. arela (Mabille) (as its synonym  S. nox (Mabille) ,  nox being the male and  arela the female of the same species). There are now five, possibly six species in this genus of Afrotropical skippers (Larsen 2005). Of these, we have reared the two relatively common species,  S. arela and  S. pulvina from Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. The males of the genus are usually more or less plain brown, with a variety of brands which are useful for identification, while the females have variable white hyaline markings (Evans 1937). The food plants of these two species are  Zingiberaceae , and it is likely that the other members of the genus will also be found to have food plants in this family. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFAAB139CEEC91D722CEF9CF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFAAB13ECEEC974D25C5FE71.text	0386D843FFAAB13ECEEC974D25C5FE71.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Semalea arela Mabille 1891	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Semalea arela Mabille, 1891</p>
            <p> This species (Figure 13) was described from Gabon (Mabille 1891), and occurs from Senegal to Uganda and south to Zambia, and in coastal forests from Kenya to Mozambique (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005). The male has a brand on either side of the origin of vein 2 of the forewing. In Kenya, MJWC has found this species only in the Makadara Forest, Shimba Hills, where its food plant  Aframomum orientale grows. However, it is known more widely from the Kenya coast and inland from Meru (Larsen 1991), but does not seem to be known from the western forests. Although the adults are scarce in MJWC’s experience—perhaps because he has not visited the site in the first half of the morning when Larsen (1991) reports that the adults fly—the caterpillars are not difficult to find. In Tanzania, it is found wherever  Aframomum spp. grow from 400 to 2000m (TCEC observations, Kielland 1990). </p>
            <p> Food plants. Sevastopulo (unpublished) reared this species from an un-named species of  Zingiberaceae in the Makadara Forest in the Shimba Hills, which he subsequently listed as  Aframomum sp. (Sevastopulo 1974) and  Zingiber (Sevastopulo 1975) . This is almost certainly the source of repeated records of  Zingiber (Kielland 1990, Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995) or both  Aframomum and  Zingiber (Heath et al. 2002, Vande weghe 2010). MJWC’s observations from the same locality are doubtless from the same population and food plant some 30 years later. The only food plant MJWC found there was  Aframomum orientale which has individual mauve flowers at the base of the stems, and grows along the tracks, and around the edge of clearings in the Makadara Forest near the summit of the Shimba Hills. Almost certainly it is the same species which Sevastopulo recorded as  Zingiber sp. and  Aframomum sp. In captivity caterpillars accepted leaves of an ornamental  Hedychium sp. with white flowers at the end of the leaf-frond (probably  H. coronarium , native to Asia). </p>
            <p> TCEC has reared this species from unspecified  Aframomum sp(p). in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique. In Cote d’Ivoire, Vuattoux (1999) reared this species from  Aframomum alboviolaceum (as  A. latifolium ) and  A. cereum (as  A. sceptrum ). Larsen (2005) repeats these records and writes that ‘Condamin (mss) reports that Real bred it also from grasses (  Pennisetum ,  Setaria and  Panicum ): I strongly doubt that a species could adapt to both grasses and  Zingiberaceae .’ We agree with Larsen, and recommend that these records from grasses should not be accepted. </p>
            <p> Ovum. MJWC believes that the ovum is as shown in Figure 14, although he was not able to rear this specimen. It was laid on the under surface of a 215mm long leaf, 3mm from the edge, and 75mm from the tip. The ovum is 1.2mm in diameter, quite flattened, trapezoid in cross section, due to a flat top and ten flat faces around the perimeter, separated by distinct ridges which are thickened towards the apex. The ovum hatched after 5 days and the neonate caterpillar appeared to be a typical  Hesperiinae . </p>
            <p>Leaf shelters. MJWC observed that the young caterpillar cuts two notches from the edge of the leaf, and folds the resultant flap under, whereas larger caterpillars may cut a single large notch and fold a triangular flap under, normally using the distal part of the leaf, or roll the leaf from the edge without making a cut. TCEC found this last form to be typical, but whether this represents individual or geographical variation, we don’t know; systematic observations should be made. The shelters often trap water for extended periods after rain, but the caterpillars seem to suffer no ill effects.</p>
            <p>Caterpillar. The newly hatched caterpillar (from the ovum in Figure 14) was pale with a black head, 0.5 x 0.5mm wide x high. As the caterpillar grows, subsequent instars until the penultimate instar (Figure 15.1) are translucent green, the head dark, instar n-3 0.8 x 0.9mm (n=1), instar n-2 1.25 x 1.5mm (n=1), instar n-1 1.8 x 2.2mm (n=5) wide x high. In the final instar (Figure 15.2–4), the head is a narrow oval, 2.55 x 3.4mm wide x high (n=5), indent at vertex, dark brown-black, shiny rugose; T1 concolorous with body; body translucent green, appearing yellow-green due to yellow dots over A1–A10; subcutaneous trachea and malpighian tubules visible through cuticle; spiracles pale, inconspicuous; all legs concolorous; anal plate semi-circular with a raised rim. The caterpillars from Kenya (Figure 15.1–3) and north-western Zambia (Figure 15.4) showed no significant differences.</p>
            <p> Pupa. MJWC did not find the pupa in the field, but in captivity it was formed in the final leaf shelter. We have not explicitly documented whether there is a silk girdle, but  S. pulvina (below) makes one, so there  S. arela probably does too. We found no significant difference between the pupae from Kenya (Figure 16.3–6) and Zambia (Figure 16.1–2). A female pupa from Kenya, MJWC 89/25A (Figure 16.3–6) measured 22mm long; generally light brown with darker speckles; short flat-ended frontal projection; head very rugose; T1 spiracle surrounded, except anteriorly by a raised, smooth, brown lip, bordered exteriorly by a row of beading; other spiracles brown; proboscis sheath reaches tip of abdomen; dorsally on abdomen a pair of transverse lines, one each side of dorsum in mid segment; transverse row of indistinct spots posterior to these; large dark spots on A2 and A3 against wings; dorsolateral spot on A4–A6; final abdominal segment has a pale, raised, rugose dorsolateral ridge surrounding a smooth dorsal area. No white waxy powder. All six pupae that MJWC reared from three different collections took exactly 16 days to complete pupal development under Nairobi conditions. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFAAB13ECEEC974D25C5FE71	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFAEB121CEEC92EC2213FF4C.text	0386D843FFAEB121CEEC92EC2213FF4C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Semalea pulvina Plotz 1879	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Semalea pulvina Plötz, 1879</p>
            <p> Semalea pulvina was described from Aburi, Ghana (Plötz 1879), and is found from West Africa east to western Kenya and South to Zimbabwe and Mozambique (Larsen 1991, Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005). The southern populations Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Shaba (DR Congo) have a much lighter ground colour and T.B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2015) intended to describe them as a separate subspecies. The male of this species has distinctive secondary sexual characteristics, most notably a large, dark brand over the cell and costa UPH, matched by a forward directed hair tuft on dorsum UNF. </p>
            <p> Kakamega Forest is the Kenyan stronghold of this species, although MJWC has a single male from Meru Forest, and Neave (1904) records a single male from Ugaia, South of Kisumu. MJWC has seen adult males once in Kakamega Forest, when they came readily to flowers. Females (Figure 17) settle on low vegetation in clearings. Although neither sex is frequently seen, caterpillars are easy to find on their food plant in Kakamega Forest:  Aframomum zambesiacum zambesiacum . Adults are said to be active early in the morning only, disappearing before midday (Dickson &amp; Kroon 1978). </p>
            <p> Food plants. Dickson &amp; Kroon (1978) give the food plant as wild ginger,  Siphonochilus aethiopicus (=  Kaempferia aethiopica ) (  Zingiberaceae ) in southern Africa. This record is repeated (as  Kaempferia aethiopica ) by Kielland (1990) and (as  Kaempferia ) by Larsen (1991) and Ackery et al. (1995). Pringle et al. (1994) and Heath et al. (2002) refer to the same food plant in the new combination  S. aethiopicus , and Heath et al. (2002) add  Aframomum sp. (  Zingiberaceae ), probably based on TCEC’s rearing. Larsen (2005) lists all three genera: ‘  Aframomum ,  Siphonochilus (Zambia) and  Kaempferia ’, and Vande weghe (2010) lists the same three genera. </p>
            <p> The food plant in Kakamega Forest, western Kenya, is  Aframomum zambesiacum zambesiacum , a large species which grows beside the roads and tracks over much of the area. The fruiting body is only present rarely; it is a large red body at the base of the stalks (Figure 18); MJWC saw the fruiting body once, but no flowers. TCEC reared this species from  Aframomum sp. at Tukuyu (south-western Tanzania), Lulanda (forest at 1500–1700m, near Mufindi, Iringa, Tanzania), Rondo (south-eastern Tanzania) and Hillwood (north-western Zambia). Where the ranges of  S. arela and  S. pulvina overlap, TCEC has found them on the same plants, even on the same leaf. </p>
            <p>Ovum. TCEC recorded the ovum from the Rondo Plateau (Figure 19). It is orange-brown, dome-shaped, with a strong basal flange, 13 wall-like ribs stopping short of the micropyle, and horizontal microsculpture between the ribs.</p>
            <p> Leaf shelters. These are similar to those of  S. arela described above, except this species tends to fold the shelters upwards more often. The largest shelters may be formed from the basal half of a leaf with one half folded under or over along the mid-rib, and the distal portion eaten. TCEC found that  S. pulvina normally cuts a flap, whereas  S. arela normally rolls a leaf without making a cut. If this behaviour is followed by feeding basal and or distal to the shelter, it will appear as though the shelter construction involved a cut. As noted under  S. arela , more systematic observations of shelter construction in these species would be helpful. As for  S. arela , the shelters often trap water after rain, without adversely affecting the caterpillars. </p>
            <p>Caterpillar. The final instar caterpillar of individual MJWC 89/37B (which subsequently died) measured 24mm (Figure 20.2–3); head 2.2 x 2.7mm wide x high (n= 10), oval, indent at vertex; brown, with a lighter brown stripe on the epicranium each side of epicranial suture and on outer edge of adfrontals and the clypeus, laterally to stemmata; rugose, shiny. T1 with a very narrow, inconspicuous brown band on pronotum, otherwise concolorous with body. Body translucent dull dark green, the subcutaneous trachea visible through the cuticle; a brown dorsolateral stripe, continuous T1–A1, narrower A1–A4, starting to break up A5–A8, upturned on A8; a ventrolateral flange to body; spiracles pale, may be quite conspicuous, linked by visible trachea; all legs concolorous. The instar lasts 14–17 days, and the body turns brown before pupation (Figure 20.4). Caterpillars from Zambia (Figure 20.5) would be placed in a separate, southern subspecies by T.B. Larsen (above); they were similar to those of what would be the nominate subspecies, but the brown of the head may have more of a red tone.</p>
            <p>The penultimate instar caterpillar MJWC 89/37D is similar (Figure 20.1) but the head is 1.6 x 1.8mm wide x high (n=4) uniformly brown apart from a diffuse area at apex and the clypeus and lower frons being light brown; the dorsolateral line is less pronounced. The fourth instar lasts about 12 days. In instar n-2, the light brown head measured 1.1 x 1.2mm wide x high (n=2).</p>
            <p> The final instar caterpillar and pupa of  Xanthodisca vibius (Hewitson) which feeds on the same food plant are very similar, and differences are discussed under that species. </p>
            <p> Pupa. The pupa (Figure 21) is similar to that of  S. arela , but lacks the frontal projection, and the proboscis extends 2–3 segments beyond the wing cases. The pupa is attached at the cremaster to a solid bar of silk, across the wall of the shelter, and there is a weak silk girdle. A Kenyan pupa (MJWC 90/37A, Figure 21.1) probably formed a week previously had the head and appendages dull brown; abdomen light chestnut brown; spiracle T1 light chestnut, similar in structure to that of  S. arela , the central hole 0.3mm in diameter and the variably brown border about 0.5mm wide; a small dark patch around spiracles A4–A6. Pupae are variably speckled, some having almost no speckles, others heavily speckled. Some pupae have irregular dark spots subdorsally above the T1 spiracle, and dorsolaterally on the anterior margin of T3 and A1 (similar to  Xanthodisca vibius discussed below). The pupal stage lasts about 17 days (range 9-21). A Zambian pupa (Figure 21.2–3) is similar but the border of the T1 spiracle is brown, and the abdomen has a darker lateral line, which appears to be due to the colouring of the dorsolateral line of the caterpillar persisting in a recently formed pupa. No white waxy powder. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFAEB121CEEC92EC2213FF4C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB2B121CEEC90D52474F9CE.text	0386D843FFB2B121CEEC90D52474F9CE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Xanthodisca Aurivillius 1925	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Xanthodisca Aurivillius, 1925</p>
            <p> This genus was introduced by Aurivillius (1925) for  Astictopterus vibius Hewitson and  Pamphila rega Mabille , which at that time was considered a subspecies of  vibius . Up until then,  vibius had been treated as a species of  Pardaleodes , and Evans (1937) considered  Xanthodisca to be closely allied to  Pardaleodes . Evans added two species to the genus:  Pardaleodes astrape from West and central Africa and  Pamphila ariel Mabille , a Madagascan endemic. Carcasson (1981) and Ackery et al. (1995) treated  X. vibius and  X. rega as distinct species, and Larsen (2005) confirmed that they overlap in distribution in Cameroon. </p>
            <p> The late T.B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2015) re-examined the members of the genus, and concluded that  X. ariel probably belongs to one of the Madagascan endemic genera (  Perrotia or  Miraja ), whereas  astrape is not related to any other genus, so he planned to describe new genus to hold it. The food plants of  ariel are unknown but Larsen suggests they will be found to be bamboos, whereas  X. vibius and  X. rega feed on  Aframomum spp. (  Zingiberaceae ) and  X. astrape feeds on  Marantaceae , and is treated below in the section on  Marantaceae feeders. Contrary to what Aurivillius (1925) and Evans (1937) thought,  Xanthodisca is not closely related to  Pardaleodes , a grass-feeding genus treated in Cock &amp; Congdon (2014), rather it shows clear affinities with the other Zingiberaceae-feeders treated here, especially  Semalea (above). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB2B121CEEC90D52474F9CE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB2B127CEEC974E2378FC6C.text	0386D843FFB2B127CEEC974E2378FC6C.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Xanthodisca vibius Hewitson 1878	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Xanthodisca vibius Hewitson, 1878</p>
            <p>This species is found from Cameroon to Kenya and south to Malawi (type locality Gabon) (Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005). In Kenya, it is a scarce species restricted to Kakamega Forest, and perhaps other western forests. MJWC never saw the adult, but did once rear it from a caterpillar.</p>
            <p> Food plants. Le Pelley (1959) gives  Amomum sp. as the food plant in Uganda, a record apparently repeated by Sevastopulo (1975), Kielland (1990) and Ackery et al. (1995). MJWC reared this species from  Aframomum zambesiacum zambesiacum , the normal food plant of  Semalea pulvina in Kakamega Forest. TCEC has reared this species from the Rondo Plateau, south-east Tanzania and at Kihansi, south central Tanzania, from  Aframomum sp. The former may be the origin of the record of  Aframomum in Heath et al. (2002). It seems likely that the early record from  Amomum should be referred to  Aframomum . </p>
            <p> Caterpillar. MJWC reared this species once from the final instar from amongst a batch of  S. pulvina caterpillars collected from Kakamega Forest 1 July 1990 (MJWC 90/70G). He did not notice any differences in the shelters or caterpillars at the time, and was surprised when one pupa produced a female  X. vibius . Examination of the cast head capsule revealed no qualitative difference between these two species; the clypeus, frons, adfrontals and a stripe down the epicranial suture light brown; the rest of the epicranium rugose, the raised areas darker brown and the pits lighter brown; posterior margin basally pale; it measured 2.2 x 2.75mm wide x high, almost exactly the same as that of the final instar of  S. pulvina (2.2 x 2.7mm). </p>
            <p> TCEC has reared this species at Kihansi and the Rondo Plateau, Tanzania, from  Aframomum sp. It can be seen that the caterpillar (Figure 22) does indeed resemble those of  S. pulvina , but was noted to be more squat, green, and with a squared off anal plate with a dark transverse mark. </p>
            <p> Pupa. The 18mm pupa that MJWC reared is very similar to that of  S. pulvina , but the most obvious difference is in the dimensions of the semi-circular body around the T1 spiracle: the central hole measured 0.67mm across ventrally-dorsally, and the rim measured 0.5mm across dorsally, 0.5mm posteriorly and 0.28mm ventrally. In addition (based on the emerged pupae of both) the pupa of  X. vibius is more uniformly pale compared to that of  S. pulvina ; an irregular dark mark subdorsally between the T1 spiracles, another dorsolaterally on the anterior margin of T3, A1 and A4-A6; proboscis reaches to the end of the penultimate abdominal segment. The pupa took 19 days until the adult emerged. The pupa documented by TCEC from Kihansi (Figure 23) is similar, but is darker and the distribution of dark markings differs, suggesting there is probably significant individual variation in colouring. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB2B127CEEC974E2378FC6C	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB4B127CEEC93F522C5F902.text	0386D843FFB4B127CEEC93F522C5F902.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Xanthodisca rega Mabille 1890	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Xanthodisca rega Mabille, 1890</p>
            <p> Evans (1937) treated  X. rega Mabille 1889 as the West African subspecies of  X. vibius , but Carcasson (1981) and Ackery et al. (1995) treat it as a distinct subspecies, and the two overlap in Cameroon (Larsen 2005). Described from Sierra Leone, this species is found from Senegal, west to Cameroon and Gabon (Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005), although Vande Weghe (2010) considers the record from Gabon unlikely to be correct. In Côte d’Ivoire, Vuattoux (1999) reared three specimens of this species from  Aframomum cereum (as  A. sceptrum ) collected in July 1979 and December 1988. Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010) repeat this food plant record. MJWC also reared this species once in Côte d’Ivoire from a final instar caterpillar collected on an  Aframomum sp. (reminiscent of  A. orientale ) on 3 June 1989. </p>
            <p> The leaf shelter was on one of the lower leaves; only the basal third of the leaf remained, and it was folded upwards along the midrib. About four days before the prepupa, the caterpillar was 30mm long; head brown, slightly paler adjacent epicranial suture; rugose; widest nearer base, 2.4 x 2.7mm wide x high; body translucent dull, dark green, the dorsal line darker, brown gonads visible on A5; anal plate with an unusual black dot on the posterior margin; spiracles pale; all legs concolorous. The 18mm pupa (Figure 24) had a transverse row of three very short frontal projections (Figure 24.2); thorax brown, abdomen whitish brown; T1 spiracle surrounded by a dark brown C-shaped rim similar to that of  X. vibius , the central hole measured 0.66mm across ventrally-dorsally, and the rim measured 0.46mm across dorsally, 0.22m posteriorly and 0.42mm ventrally, i.e. rather narrower than that of  X. vibius ; a white streak just anterodorsal to T1 spiracle. The adult emerged after 18 days. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB4B127CEEC93F522C5F902	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB5B126CEEC92EC245CFFE6.text	0386D843FFB5B126CEEC92EC245CFFE6.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hypoleucis Mabille 1891	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Hypoleucis Mabille, 1891</p>
            <p> Hypoleucis is a small Afrotropical genus of just three species (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995). Evans (1937) and Ackery et al. (1995) treat the type species of the genus,  H. tripunctata Mabille as having three subspecies, but Larsen (2005) raises doubts as to whether subspecies are justified ‘since any population shows considerable variation’. Vuattoux (1999) reared  H. tripunctata tripunctata once from  Aframomum alboviolaceum (as  A. latifolium ) in June 1973 and once from  A. cereum (as  A. sceptrum ) in July 1979 at Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire (repeated as  Aframomum in Vande weghe 2010). The common  H. ophiusa (Hewitson) feeds on  Costus spp. (  Costaceae ) and is treated below. In contrast, Vuattoux (1999) reared the much rarer  H. sophia Evans from  Sorghum arundinaceum (Poaceae) once in February 1972 (repeated in Vande weghe 2010). It seems rather unlikely that different members of the same genus would feed on  Zingiberales and  Poaceae , so this record needs confirmation. However, it is worth noting Evans’ (1937) observation that  H. sophia differs from the other two species in having no forewing brand and very special, completely different palpi, the third segment being comparatively long, pointed and in continuation of the second segment; but in appearance, antennae, venation and wing shape it does not differ from the other species. It is almost certainly not congeneric (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015). We have no other information on the early stages of  H. tripunctata and  H. sophia . </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB5B126CEEC92EC245CFFE6	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB5B124CEEC916525F3FFA9.text	0386D843FFB5B124CEEC916525F3FFA9.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hypoleucis ophiusa Hewitson 1866	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Hypoleucis ophiusa Hewitson, 1866</p>
            <p>This species occurs in two subspecies, the nominate ssp. (Figure 25) from Senegal to Gabon and western Zaire, and ssp. ophir Evans from Uganda (type locality), the rest of Zaire and Zambia (Ackery et al. 1995).</p>
            <p> Food plants. Larsen (1991) indicates that one species of  Hypoleucis is recorded from  Costus ; this is probably based on MJWC’s records for  H. ophiusa (below). Vuattoux (1999) reared this species six times at Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire from  Costus afer and  Paracostus englerianus (=  Costus englerianus , see Specht &amp; Stevenson 2006). </p>
            <p> Larsen (2005) describes finding caterpillars on  C. afer at Obudu Town, Nigeria (Oct 1996): the leaf shelters are made of ‘rolled leaves and the caterpillar devours three-quarters of the leaf before changing shelter, and on this occasion almost defoliated the plant. Pupation took place at the very base of a leaf, attached by the cremaster at the stem of the food plant, without making a shelter’. The lack of a shelter may reflect the lack of leaves rather than normal biology (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015). Vande weghe (2010) gives the food plant as  Costus . </p>
            <p> MJWC reared  H. ophiusa in Côte d'Ivoire (MJWC 89/213) and Cameroon (MJWC 90/207) on  Costus sp(p). The food plant in Cameroon was also the food plant of  Caenides dacena and is shown in Figure 28 under that species; it was identified as either  Costus afer or  C. lucanusianus . Caterpillars did not accept  Hedychium sp. (  Zingiberaceae ) in captivity. The following observations were made on two caterpillars collected in the Forêt du Yapo, Côte d’Ivoire in June 1989 (MJWC 89/213), except the head and spiracle measurements are the average of all material available. </p>
            <p>Leaf shelters. The leaf shelters are distinctive; a leaf of about 150-200mm length is cut diagonally at about 1/ 3 from base, from one margin, through the mid-rib to within a 10mm of the other margin; the hanging distal portion is then rolled upwards to make a tubular shelter of about 5mm diameter, and 50-80mm length. The leaf shelter found near Douala, Cameroon (MJWC 90/207) was noted to be similar.</p>
            <p>Caterpillar. The penultimate and n-2 instars are translucent dark green with a black, rugose head, paler ventrally (Figure 26.1); the head of the former measured 0.8 x 1.2mm wide x high, and of the later 1.8 x 2.1mm. The final instar (Figure 26.2–3) measured 21mm about half way through the instar; head 2.3 x 3.3 wide x high, indent at vertex, widest towards base; rugose; very light brown with brown line adjacent to epicranial suture and from vertex laterally to stemmata; brown line down centre of each epicranium; half of adfrontals against frons brown. Body dull, translucent green, dorsal line darker; pronotum a narrow black plate on posterior margin T1, stopping short of the spiracles; spiracles light brown, those of T1 and A8 more conspicuous; pale subcutaneous patch around and above spiracle A8; all legs concolorous except those of T1 slightly brown.</p>
            <p> Pupa. MJWC found that in captivity the pupa is formed in the last caterpillar leaf shelter. No description was prepared of the pupa from life. It is similar in shape to those of  Semalea spp. and  Xanthodisca spp., but the colour is light green apart from a dark dorsal line on thorax and abdomen, brown spiracles and the light brown rim to the spiracle of T1 (Figure 27). The emerged pupa is white. The rim of spiracle T1 measures 0.44mm dorsally, 0.42mm ventrally, 0.29mm posteriorly and the hole is 0.34mm wide dorsoventrally. The pupa took 20 days to complete development, while another from Cameroon (MJWC 90/207) took 26 days. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB5B124CEEC916525F3FFA9	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB7B12BCEEC951122B5FE53.text	0386D843FFB7B12BCEEC951122B5FE53.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Leona Evans 1937	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Leona Evans, 1937</p>
            <p> Evans (1937) established this genus with  L. leonora (Plötz) as the type species for nine (now twelve) species of Afrotropical skippers, which he considered very closely allied to  Pteroteinon and  Caenides . Evans (1937) recognised three groups: (1) four species having the UNH dark brown with inconspicuous markings (2) one species (  L. leonora ) with UNH with large white central spots in line in base of space lC, cell and space 7; discal spots in spaces lC and 2, and (3) four (now seven) species with conspicuous ochreous markings UNH. </p>
            <p> Lindsey &amp; Miller (1965) and Ackery et al. (1995) treated  Leona as a synonym of  Caenides , but Larsen (2005) treated it as a valid genus. Based on the male genitalia (uncus pointed in  Caenides and bifid in  Leona ) and some external characters they do seem to divide into these two groups, apart from  L. lissa Evans which feeds on  Dracaena spp. (Cock et al. 2015) and  L. luehderi (Plötz) for which the food plants are unknown; these two species may require a separate genus (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015). </p>
            <p> Leona group (1) includes  L. maracanda (Hewitson) , a palm-feeding species treated in Cock et al. (2014) and three species of unknown biology. The biology of  L. leonora , the only species in group (2) is unknown, although Heath et al. (2002) suggest its food plant is possibly  Zingiberaceae . Of the seven species in group (3),  L. stoehri (Karsch) is reported to feed on  Amomum sp. (likely to refer to  Aframomum sp.) in Uganda (Le Pelley 1959, Sevastopulo 1975),  L. halma Evans is reported to feed on  Amomum sp. (Kielland 1990) or  Aframomum sp. (Heath et al. 2002, Larsen 2005, Vande weghe 2010) (but this may be carried over from when  L. halma was treated as a ssp. of  L. stoehri ), and  L. lissa feeds on  Dracaena sp(p). (Cock et al. 2015), while the biology of the other four species is unknown. Given that there has been some taxonomic confusion within group (3) as well as in the food plant names used, confirmation of these food plants is desirable. </p>
            <p> Based on the food plants alone, one might anticipate that  Leona as presently constituted is paraphyletic. Unfortunately we have no information on the early stages of any  Leona spp. apart from  L. maracanda (Cock et al. 2014) so cannot comment further, or on whether the Zingiberaceae-feeding species show affinities with the Zingiberaceae- and Costaceae-feeding  Semalea ,  Xanthodisca ,  Hypoleucis and  Caenides spp. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB7B12BCEEC951122B5FE53	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB8B12BCEEC91AF2482F8CF.text	0386D843FFB8B12BCEEC91AF2482F8CF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Caenides Holland 1896	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Caenides Holland, 1896</p>
            <p> Holland (1896) established this genus with the palm-feeding  C. dacela (Hewitson) as type species. Nine species are currently considered to belong to this genus, but  C. hidaroides Aurivillius and  C. dacena (Hewitson) do not belong on morphological and male genitalia grounds (Larsen &amp; Collins 2011, 2014). As is the case for  Leona (above) the food plants of species currently placed in the genus  Caenides are diverse, suggesting that the genus may be paraphyletic.  Caenides dacela is recorded from  Phoenix reclinata (Arecaceae) and was treated in Cock et al. (2014).  Caenides soritia (Hewitson) has been reported from an undetermined  Zingiberaceae (Sevastopulo unpublished, 1975) and oil palm,  Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire (Vuattoux 1999, Larsen 2005, Vande weghe 2010), but the latter food plant is considered an error below.  Caenides kangvensis Holland has been reared from  Thalia geniculata (Marantaceae) and  Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire (Vuattoux 1999, Larsen 2005, Vande weghe 2010).  Liliaceae are not members of the  Zingiberales , and so this food plant record needs confirmation (Larsen 2005, Cock et al. 2014). We present information below on  C. soritia and  C. dacena (Hewitson) , the food plants of which are  Costus spp. (  Costaceae ). The food plants and early stages of the remaining  Caenides spp. are as yet unknown. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB8B12BCEEC91AF2482F8CF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB8B12ACEEC944D2480FE70.text	0386D843FFB8B12ACEEC944D2480FE70.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Caenides soritia Hewitson 1876	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Caenides soritia Hewitson, 1876</p>
            <p> Sevastopulo (unpublished, 1975) reared this species from an unidentified  Zingiberaceae in Entebbe, Uganda, a record repeated in Ackery et al. (1995) and Larsen (2005). In his unpublished records, Sevastopulo (unpublished) described the partial life history as follows, from a fully fed caterpillar found 13 Oct 1952, which prepared its pupation shelter 19 Oct, and a female emerged 9 Nov. ‘ Head yellowish, densely punctate, heart-shaped. 1st somite [T1] very narrow forming a neck. Body pale grey, with a darker grey dorsal line, shining. Sublateral and ventral area, legs and prolegs whitish grey. Spiracles white. Anal flap large and rounded, fringed with a few colourless setae. Secondary segmental divisions very well marked. Penultimate instar similar to final. Lives in a cell formed from a turned-over flap of leaf. Pupa formed in a cell formed of rolled leaf; the upper end closed, the lower open but blocked by a few threads of white silk thickened by white wax spun criss-cross inside the opening, these look rather like white legs, and may be intended to give the impression that the cell is occupied by a spider. The walls of the cell and the pupa itself covered with a white waxy powder. The pupa is placed head downwards in the cell and is supported by a girdle and silken cross-cable to which the cremaster is attached. Pupa moth-like in shape, the abdomen olive yellow, the thorax and wing cases brownish-olive. Prothoracic spiracle with a crescent shaped, rugose, raised mark immediately behind it. Cremaster a stout spike ending in a cluster of hooked bristles. ’ </p>
            <p> We note that Sevastopulo was familiar with the penultimate instar, so there seems little possibility that this food plant is in error, due to a ‘wandering larva’ as suggested by Larsen &amp; Collins (2011). Where Sevastopulo refers to the head as heart-shaped, his photographs indicate an oval head indent at the apex, rather than heartshaped, which would imply that it is significantly wider in the dorsal half than the ventral half. The description of the pupa and the white wax on the pupa and in the pupal leaf shelter are similar to what we have reported for  C. dacela (Cock et al. 2014) . The ‘crescent shaped, rugose, raised mark immediately behind’ the prothoracic spiracle, sounds like that noted for  C. dacena below (and  C. dacela ). </p>
            <p> Vuattoux (1999) records rearing one specimen from oil palm,  Elaeis guineensis , and capturing a second in gallery forest of Bandama [River] (Un seul élevage a été réalisé sur le palmier à huile  Elaeis guineensis . Un autre adulte a été capturé dans la forêt galerie du Bandama le 2 mai 1972). MJWC re-examined the voucher specimen for the second of these, and found that it is actually a male  C. dacela , which is a known palm-feeder (Cock et al. 2014). It seems reasonable to assume that the specimen reared from oil palm is also  C. dacela , and that MJWC managed to list the wrong name for this identification which he made for R. Vuattoux (the species are too distinct to suggest an error in identification).  Caenides soritia is, therefore, only reliably recorded from a  Zingiberaceae food plant. Unlike  C. dacena treated next, it has not been suggested that  C. soritia is misplaced with the remaining palm and Marantaceae-feeding  Caenides spp. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB8B12ACEEC944D2480FE70	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFB9B129CEEC91D4253EFAFF.text	0386D843FFB9B129CEEC91D4253EFAFF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Caenides dacena Hewitson 1876	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Caenides dacena Hewitson, 1876</p>
            <p> Hewitson (1876) described this species from Gaboon, i.e. Gabon and it is found from Sierra Leone to Uganda, South Sudan and north-west Tanzania (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995, Congdon &amp; Collins 1998). As noted above, this species does not belong in  Caenides , and will require a new genus (Larsen &amp; Collins 2011, 2014). </p>
            <p> In his key to  Caenides, Evans (1937) treats  C. dacena has having neither a hindwing hair tuft nor a forewing brand. However, the material reared by MJWC from Cameroon has a distinct forewing brand in space 2, starting below vein 3 half way between the origin of vein 3 and the spot in space 3, running adjacent to vein 3 and then adjacent to the cell, before turning away from the cell to meet vein two, with a short broad extension below vein 2 in space 1b. SCC examined material in ABRI collected from Côte d’Ivoire to Uganda, and found that two-thirds of males had a brand visible using a hand lens, although this was most obvious when the wings were at a slight angle to the viewer, i.e. with wings depressed or slightly sprung. It may be that the brand is not always present, that it is only obvious in newly emerged specimens, or could more than one species be involved? </p>
            <p> Food plants. Vuattoux (1999) reared this species four times in Côte d’Ivoire from  Costus afer (Costaceae) . This record is repeated by Vande weghe (2010). MJWC reared a specimen from the  Costus sp. shown in Figure 28, near Douala, Cameroon (MJWC 90/206). In discussion with Martin Cheek (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), we concluded that this photograph represents either  C. afer or  C. lucanusianus , although the latter has also been treated as a synonym of  C. afer and/or  C. maculatus (Tropicos 2014) . In captivity, two caterpillars in the final instar completed feeding when offered leaves of  Hedychium sp. and  Aframomum sp. but the resultant adults were significantly smaller than others reared through on  Costus . </p>
            <p>Leaf shelters. The one-cut shelters of the penultimate and final instar caterpillars are made with a cut from the edge of the leaf lamina to close to the midrib, and the distal part of the leaf is then folded upwards.</p>
            <p> Caterpillar. The penultimate instar caterpillar had a uniformly black or very dark brown head; rugose; 2.5 x 2.9mm wide x high (n=2). The final instar caterpillar (Figure 29) measured 38mm, five days before pupation. Head 3.6 x 4.4mm wide x high (n=4); indented at vertex; shiny, rugose; very dark brown, except for indistinct dark brown markings: a line down the centre of the frons, a line parallel and close to epicranial suture and a weaker line down face below the apex, which is not always present. These head markings are easily overlooked in life. Their distribution is reminiscent of those of  Hypoleucis ophiusa (Figure 26). Pronotum brown. Body transparent greenbrown; darker dorsal line; rest of body with pale fat bodies showing through cuticle; anal plate dark with pale margin; spiracles light brown, not conspicuous; all legs concolorous. The body becomes brown ventrally at the end of the final instar; the wax glands are restricted to the anterior ventral margin of A1 according to MJWC’s notes, but it would be worth confirming this unusual distribution. </p>
            <p> Pupa. The pupa is formed in the final leaf shelter. It was not described, but it was photographed (Figure 30). The proboscis extends to at least the base of the cremaster, sometimes to the tip. There is a pale brown C-shaped raised rim around the posterior side of the T1 spiracle, measuring 0.7mm across dorsoventrally, and variably 0.4– 0.6mm across the rim; this rim surrounds a dark brown conical pit. This feature is also present in  C. dacela (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 55). The pupal stage lasted 25–29 days. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFB9B129CEEC91D4253EFAFF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBBB128CEEC908B22ECF8FB.text	0386D843FFBBB128CEEC908B22ECF8FB.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Marantaceae	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> The  Marantaceae feeders </p>
            <p> Four Afrotropical  Hesperiinae incertae sedis genera are known to include  Marantaceae feeders.  Rhabdomantis and  Osmodes have only been recorded from  Marantaceae , whereas  Xanthodisca and  Caenides include selected representatives that use this food plant family and both are paraphyletic. </p>
            <p> The genus  Rhabdomantis comprises two species and only differs from  Osmodes in the absence of any brand on the hindwing and in the appearance, particularly in the absence of silvery spots on the hindwing below according to Evans (1937). Although Larsen (2005) suggests there are affinities between the genitalia of  Rhabdomantis and  Osmodes , he subsequently changed his view, considering the genitalia to be very different (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2014, 2015). The type species,  R. galatia (Hewitson) is found from Sierra Leone to western Uganda (Evans 1937, Ackery et al. 1995). Vuattoux (1999) reports rearing a single specimen from  Trachyphrynium braunianum (Marantaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire. This record is repeated by Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010). There is no other information on the biology of this genus. </p>
            <p> As discussed above under  Xanthodisca , the late T.B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2015) planned to establish a new genus for  X. astrape , a species that had been placed in  Xanthodisca but is not closely related to this or any other genera of  Hesperiinae incertae sedis. We have not reared this species, but Vuattoux (1999) reared one specimen from  T. braunianum (Marantaceae) in Côte d’Ivoire; this record is repeated in Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010). Unfortunately we have no further information on the early stages of this genus. </p>
            <p> Caenides kangvensis has been reared from the lily  Gloriosa superba (  Colchicaceae , formerly  Liliaceae ) and  Thalia geniculata (=  T. welwitschii ) (  Marantaceae ) (Vuattoux 1999), but the early stages have not been documented. As noted above, other  Caenides spp. feed on  Arecaceae ,  Zingiberaceae and  Costaceae . </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFBBB128CEEC908B22ECF8FB	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBBB128CEEC94502301FBDA.text	0386D843FFBBB128CEEC94502301FBDA.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Osmodes Holland 1892	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Osmodes Holland, 1892</p>
            <p> This primarily West African genus was reviewed by Miller (1964) and subsequently updated (Miller 1971), so that 15 species are now recognised (Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005). There is information on the food plants of four species, all of which feed on  Marantaceae (Table 1), but no other information has been published on the early stages. Adults occur along forest edges and in shady forest, perch low down, and sunbathe (Figure 31). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFBBB128CEEC94502301FBDA	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBBB12DCEEC95322384F94D.text	0386D843FFBBB12DCEEC95322384F94D.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Osmodes adon Mabille 1890	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Osmodes adon Mabille, 1890</p>
            <p> This is a rare forest butterfly described from Sierra Leone, and with scattered records from there east to Cameroon and Zaire (Ackery et al. 1995, Larsen 2005). Females are difficult to identify with confidence. MJWC reared a single female (Figure 32) from Forêt du Yapo, Côte d’Ivoire, which is provisionally allocated to  O. adon , following a discussion with T.B. Larsen (pers. comm. 2014). The choice was between  O. distincta Holland and  O. adon , but we think this is more likely to be  O. adon as the cell spots are less segregated from the discal spots and the lack of light shading between the unh margin and the discal spots; also, in  O. distincta the discal spot in 3 upf does not reach the base of the cell. </p>
            <p> 1This record may refer to  O. lindseyi Miller (Larsen 2005) ; it is unlikely to be  O. adosus which is not recorded from Uganda. </p>
            <p> MJWC collected a prepupa on  Sarcophrynium brachystachys (Marantaceae) (MJWC 316), 3 June 1989 (MJWC 89/214). The leaf shelter was made on a leaf of 29 cm long x 13 cm wide; there was extensive feeding from much of one margin about half way to the midrib, and a long narrow flap was folded under to form the pupal shelter (Figure 33). The shelter was lined with silk lightly sprinkled with white waxy powder, and the pupa was held with a simple silk girdle. </p>
            <p>The prepupa head measured 2.9 x 3.2mm wide x high; light brown; a black spot 0.9 x 1.2mm centrally on the upper part of the face, extending to overlap the top of the adfrontals, but not on them; a similar smaller spot ventrolaterally covering the stemmata and extending dorsally in a pear shape; light dusting of white waxy powder on lower part of head including ventrolateral spot. Pronotum light brown. Body light green, dorsal line darker; spiracles light brown, conspicuous; all legs concolorous. There were ventral wax glands, but their distribution could not be recorded without disturbing the prepupa.</p>
            <p>The pupa (Figure 34) was 23mm long; elongate, with a blunt translucent frontal spike of 1.4mm, and the proboscis projecting beyond the cremaster; light bright green through a translucent cuticle; marked in blackdorsal line mostly a series of diffuse lines from A1–A8, but sharp in short sections on T1, anterior to a quadrate spot at rear of thorax, and heavy line on A9; row of 7 dorsolateral dots on A1–A7, and 8 lateral spots on T2, T3 and A2-A8; T1 spiracle convex, the central area, 0.8mm in diameter consists of densely packed light brown rods, and is surrounded by a narrow white margin, widest anteriorly and narrowest posteriorly. The cuticle of the emerged pupa was transparent and fragile.</p>
            <p> The head markings of the caterpillar and especially the form and markings of the pupa are unique in our experience, suggesting that  Osmodes is not closely related to any other Afrotropical genera for which the early stages have been documented. This view is supported by the distinctive genitalia (T.B. Larsen pers. comm. 2015). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFBBB12DCEEC95322384F94D	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBEB12DCEEC96DD2516F8BA.text	0386D843FFBEB12DCEEC96DD2516F8BA.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gretna Evans 1937	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gretna Evans, 1937</p>
            <p> Evans (1937) established this genus for six Afrotropical species and designated  Hesperia cylinda Hewitson the type species. We have treated three palm feeding species in Cock et al. (2014), but  G. cylinda , the type species, is recorded to feed on  Marantaceae and so is treated here. Larsen (pers. comm. 2014) considers  G. cylinda out of place with the other members of the genus, all of which are likely to be palm-feeders, so it is likely that one (or more) new genera will need to be established for them. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFBEB12DCEEC96DD2516F8BA	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FFBEB112CEEC97A72706F815.text	0386D843FFBEB112CEEC97A72706F815.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gretna cylinda Hewitson 1876	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gretna cylinda Hewitson, 1876</p>
            <p> This species was described from Angola, and is found in forests from Liberia to Uganda and southern Sudan. We have not reared this species, but MJWC found and documented caterpillars on a species of  Marantaceae at Entebbe, Uganda, which show clear similarities to those of  Gretna spp., particularly  G. carmen Evans treated in Cock et al. (2014), notably the long hair-like setae covering the head and body, extensive covering of waxy powder on the body and the shape and pale brown ground colour of the head. On the other hand, two emerged pupae found at the same time differ from other  Gretna spp. Based on the collection locality, the only  Gretna spp. likely to be found at Entebbe are  G. cylinda and  G. zaremba jacksoni Evans , and the latter shows affinities with the palm-feeding species. Accordingly, we are rather confident, that the species documented here is  G. cylinda . </p>
            <p> Food plants. Vuattoux (1999) reports reared it (as  G. cylindrica ) at Lamto, Côte d’Ivoire: five times on  Thalia geniculata (=  T. welwitschii ), and once each on  Trachyphrynium braunianum and  Marantochloa cuspidata (all  Marantaceae ). Larsen (2005) and Vande weghe (2010) repeat these food plant records. MJWC’s material (90/212) was collected on a  Marantaceae (probably  Marantochloa sp.) in a propagation building at the Botanic Gardens, Entebbe. </p>
            <p> Leaf shelters. Small caterpillars make a shelter of a slight fold in the leaf in mid-lamina; they are clearly visible under several strands of silk which hold the fold in place. This shelter is reminiscent of that partially documented for the first instar of  G. balenge (Holland) (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 39). Larger caterpillars make a larger fold from the edge of the portion of leaf where they have been feeding. Two emerged pupa were collected; they were found without a shelter on the leaf underside against the mid-rib, suspended by the cremaster and a multi-stranded silk girdle under the anterior part of A4. </p>
            <p> Caterpillars. A small caterpillar probably in instar n-3 was photographed but not described (Figure 35.1); it appears similar to the penultimate instar described below, except that the white waxy flocculence is much heavier on the head, the colour and markings of which cannot be seen. Preserved n-3 head capsules measured 1.55 x 1.8mm wide x high (n=2), while an n-2 measured 1.8 x 2.1mm. This young caterpillar is reminiscent of the caterpillars of  G. balenge (Cock et al. 2014, Figure 40), but much less extreme. </p>
            <p>A 14mm caterpillar (MJWC 90/212B) was thought to be in the penultimate instar (Figure 35.2–3). Head 2.3 x 2.8mm wide x high (n=3); wider near base; brown with dark brown stripe down centre of face; covered with very long, erect, white setae up to 1.6mm long. Body dull green, covered from T2 to A8 or A9 with white waxy powder; a pair of subdorsal spots on posterior margin of T3-A7 and weakly on A8 are due to the absence of white waxy powder.</p>
            <p>A 21mm caterpillar (MJWC 90/212D) was considered to be in the final instar (Figure 36). Head large, 3.5 x 4.8mm wide x high (n=3); light brown, slightly darker ventrally; a dark triangle from vertex to posterior margin; an inverted V-shape on the upper adfrontals, sharp against the adfrontal suture, diffuse internally; apex of frons dark against frontal suture; frontal sutures very narrowly dark; covered in very long, white, erect setae, mostly about 0.8mm but up to 1.6mm. Body white with a green tint; covered with setae as head; no markings, except a slightly darker subdorsal line on T1–T3.</p>
            <p>Pupa. None of the caterpillars were reared through to the pupa, but two emerged pupae (Figure 37) were collected with final instar head capsules identical to those documented (Figure 36), so we have no doubt about the association. Emerged pupa at least 20mm long; the proboscis does not extend significantly beyond the wings; cuticle pale brown almost transparent with the segmental junctions darker; a bump on the frons projects about 0.4mm; two tufts of about ten 2.4mm long erect brown setae side by side on bump; similar tufts above with 10–15 setae; ventroanteriorly two more tufts of about 8–10 setae below the ones on the bump; lateral to the frontal bump a much larger clump of similar setae on the anterior part of the eye; long pale, erect setae on dorsum and in two dorsolateral tufts on T2; similar pale setae on dorsum and laterally on abdomen segments; subdorsally on the abdomen there are curious oval pale brown structures, 1.6 x 0.8mm aligned transversely, which at first sight look like conspicuous spiracles; these are placed on A1 (1), A2–A3 (2), A4–A6(1); where two pairs occur on a segment, the anterior ones are placed nearer the dorsum; dorsolateral line of small spots near posterior margin on A2–A7; spiracles brown, inconspicuous; ventral half with layer of white waxy powder.</p>
            <p> Discussion. The affinities in morphology of the caterpillar of  G. cylinda with those known for other  Gretna spp. (Cock et al. 2014) have been pointed out. The pupa shows no close affinities with the known Afrotropical species, and the origin and function of the unique subdorsal structures on the abdomen are unknown. The pupation site on the underside of the food plant leaf against the midrib without a shelter is very unusual; it may occur in  Hypoleucis ophiusa as suggested by Larsen (2005) but it has not been documented for any other Afrotropical species. These features, together with the  Marantaceae food plant distinguish this species from the palm-feeding  Gretna spp., supporting the view that they are not congeneric in spite of the similarity of the caterpillars to those of  G. carmen . </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FFBEB112CEEC97A72706F815	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FF81B112CEEC97B22276FBF0.text	0386D843FF81B112CEEC97B22276FBF0.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moltena Evans 1937	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Moltena Evans, 1937</p>
            <p> Evans (1937) introduced this genus for the single species  Moltena , which he considered to resemble  Ploetzia apart from having a normal proboscis, rather than a vestigial one as in  Ploetzia . In his review of the genus  Chondrolepis, De Jong (1986) found that based on an analysis of adult characters  Chondrolepis seems to form a monophyletic group with  Ploetzia and  Moltena , with  Zophopetes as their nearest relative. We have treated the early stages of the grass-feeding  Chondrolepis in Cock &amp; Congdon (2014), and the palm-feeders  Ploetzia and  Zophopetes in Cock et al. (2014), but deferred a comparison of the three genera until we had treated  Moltena . </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FF81B112CEEC97B22276FBF0	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FF81B117CEEC955E2475FC31.text	0386D843FF81B117CEEC955E2475FC31.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Moltena fiara Butler 1870	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Moltena fiara Butler, 1870</p>
            <p>Butler (1870) described this species from ‘Kaffraria’ (southern Africa) and it is known from coastal areas of South Africa from Eastern Cape to southern Mozambique (Pringle et al. 1994, Ackery et al. 1995, Henning et al. 1997). The adults are known to fly at dusk (Trimen 1889) and are sometimes attracted to light (Migdoll 1988, Woodhall 2005).</p>
            <p> Food plants. The food plant is a species of  Strelitzia (Strelitziaceae) .  Strelitziaceae includes three genera, all occurring in tropical to subtropical regions:  Strelitzia with 5 species in southern Africa,  Ravenala with a single species indigenous to Madagascar, and  Phenakospermum with a single species in northern South America. The best known species is the bird-of-paradise flower  Strelitzia reginae , grown for its flowers worldwide in tropical and subtropical gardens, but this does not seem to be a normal food plant for  M. fiara , although SCC was able to rear caterpillars through on this plant in captivity. The other species of  Strelitzia have less colourful flowers, but may be grown for their striking foliage (Wikipedia 2014). </p>
            <p> The first food plant record is that of Leigh (1910) from ‘wild banana’ which refers to  S. nicolai , also known as the giant white bird-of-paradise, and this is also the food plant listed in recent works (Dickson &amp; Kroon 1978, Migdoll 1988, Pringle et al. 1994, Henning et al. 1997, Woodhall 2005). However, in his list of food plants of South African  Lepidoptera, Platt (1921) lists only  S. augusta , which is a synonym of  S. alba , the white bird-ofparadise. Murray (1932) presents the information of Leigh (1910), but refers to the food plant as  S. augusta (i.e.  S. alba ), and uses this name again later (Murray 1959).  Strelitzia alba and  S. nicolai are both arborescent species with white flowers, and it would seem that in this context, entomologists misapplied the former name in the middle of last century. </p>
            <p> Life history. Leigh (1910) provided a fairly detailed description of the life history that was not improved until G.C. Clark’s detailed life history plate was published (Dickson &amp; Kroon 1978, Plate 28). Subsequently Migdoll (1988) provided photographs of the caterpillar and food plant, and Henning et al. (1997) of the caterpillar and pupa. We cannot add anything significant to these, but include SCC’s photographs of the penultimate and final instar caterpillar and pupa for comparison with other  Hesperiinae incertae sedis. The ovum is reported to be 2.0 x 1.8mm diameter x height, with ‘30-40 longitudinal ribs, a third of which stop part of the way up the side, the remainder joining in pairs to form a single very short rib just short of the micropyle’ (G.C. Clark in Dickson &amp; Kroon 1978). The caterpillar (Figure 38) is distinctive due to the orange markings around spiracles A1–A8, variable dark late instar head markings, and the variable dark anal plate, especially in the third to penultimate instars. The pupating caterpillar and pupa are covered with white waxy powder. </p>
            <p> Natural enemies. G.C. Clark (in Dickson &amp; Kroon 1978) records that a tachinid,  Thecocarcelia incedens (Rondani) has been reared from the pupa –– the same species was also reared from  Artitropa erinnyis erinnyis (Trimen) , as discussed in (Cock et al. 2015). Based on an ovum preserved in ABRI (on  Strelitzia, Margate, Natal , South Africa, 28 Nov 1998), there is also at least one egg parasitoid that attacks  M. fiara . </p>
            <p> Discussion. As noted in the introduction to  Moltena above, De Jong (1986) found that based on an analysis of adult characters  Chondrolepis seems to form a monophyletic group with  Ploetzia and  Moltena , with  Zophopetes as their nearest relative. We have illustrated the early stages of the sole species of  Ploetzia and three species of  Zophopetes in Cock et al. (2014), and of four species of  Chondrolepis in Cock &amp; Congdon (2014). The food plants are varied:  P. amygdalis (Mabille) and  Zophopetes spp. are palm-feeders,  Chondrolepis spp. are grass feeders and  M. fiara feeds on  Strelitzia . We have not examined ova of  Chondrolepis spp., but the ova of  Ploetzia ,  Zophopetes and  Moltena are all dome-shaped and ribbed, although the detail of the number and arrangement of the ribs is variable. The caterpillars of all four genera are broadly similar, although only  M. fiara has the dark anal plate and orange spots around the A1–A8 spiracles and  Chondrolepis spp. have more conspicuous setae especially on the head. The pupae of  Ploetzia ,  Zophopetes and  Moltena are all similar, having no real distinguishing features, being similar in shape, attached at the cremaster and with white waxy powder. In contrast, the pupae of  Chondrolepis spp., which are formed in shelters of rolled grass leaves, are more cylindrical, have a short down-turned frontal projection, have more developed setae dorsally and on the abdomen, lie free in the pupal chamber, are not attached at the cremaster, and have little or no white waxy powder. On balance, the early stages would seem to indicate that  Ploetzia ,  Zophopetes and  Moltena show clear affinities, but  Chondrolepis are somewhat separated, although to some degree, this difference may be a reflection of adaptations by  Chondrolepis spp. to feeding on a relatively soft grass, and making a tight pupal chamber. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FF81B117CEEC955E2475FC31	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
0386D843FF84B116CEEC930B2774FC81.text	0386D843FF84B116CEEC930B2774FC81.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hesperiinae	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Hesperiinae incertae sedis genera of unknown biology </p>
            <p> Here we note 11 Afrotropical genera of  Hesperiinae incertae sedis, for which we have no information on the food plants or life history, and for which in most cases we would not even hazard a guess. </p>
            <p> Gyrogra Lindsey &amp; Miller (1965) was established for the single species  G. subnotata (Holland) , previously placed in  Gorgyra . Lindsey &amp; Miller (1965) suggest that  Gyrogra is not closely related to  Gorgyra , whose caterpillars feed mostly on  Connaraceae (Cock &amp; Congdon 2013) , but ‘probably nearer’  Platylesches and  Meza .  Platylesches spp. feed on Chrysobalanceae but do not seem to be close to any other Afrotropical genera (Cock &amp; Congdon 2013).  Meza is paraphyletic; the type species,  M. meza has been reported to feed on  Poaceae , while the remaining species belong in a separate genus and feed on  Fabaceae ,  Linaceae and  Dichapetalaceae (Cock &amp; Congdon 2013) . On balance,  Gyrogra seems likely to be a dicotyledon-feeder. </p>
            <p> Paracleros Berger differs from  Acleros in the form of the palpi, as Evans (1937) pointed out, and in details of the male and female genitalia (Berger 1978). This is primarily a West and central African genus, but two of the six recognised species occur as far east as Kenya (Collins &amp; Larsen 2000). In Kenya,  P. biguttulus (Mabille) is restricted to the western forests and the coast. It is not rare in parts of western Kenya, for example in Kakamega Forest where MJWC would consider it one of the regular skippers likely to be seen on most visits. The adults rest on low vegetation and come readily to flowers (Figure 40). They are conspicuous as one of the last species on the wing, as dusk sets in, or as rain in the afternoon starts to intensify. Nothing is known of the life history of members of this genus, but the adult similarity to  Acleros suggests it may have similar biology, i.e. a dicotyledon feeder (Cock &amp; Congdon 2013). </p>
            <p> Larsen &amp; Collins (2012) recently established the genus Herila to accommodate  Herila herilus (Hopffer) . The food plants and life history are unknown. Although  H. herilus was previously placed in  Teniorhinus , which is reported to feed on  Fabaceae (Pringle et al. 1994, Vuattoux 1999, Cock &amp; Congdon 2013), Larsen &amp; Collins (2012) found that Herila does not seem to be closely related to  Teniorhinus or indeed any other genus, so although they suggest it may feed on  Brachystegia spp. (  Fabaceae ), the question of likely food plants is open. Larsen &amp; Collins (2015) also established a new genus, Hollandus, for  H. xanthopepla (Holland) , which was previously placed in the Poaceae-feeding genus  Pardaleodes ; they suggest that it may be a dicotyledon-feeder, based on the ‘habitat, relative rarity, patchy distribution, and habits’. </p>
            <p> Mopala orma (Plötz) , the only species of the genus, is found from Liberia east to Uganda in wet rainforest in good condition, but is always scarce (Larsen 2005).  Osphantes ogowena (Mabille) is also the only species of its genus; it is a very rare species found in wetter forest in good condition from Guinea to DR Congo and Zambia (Larsen 2005).  Ceratricula semilutea (Mabille) is unlike any other African  Hesperiinae (Larsen 2013) . Similarly, the three species of Flandria are unrelated to other genera, except perhaps Ceratricula (Larsen 2013).  Fulda Evans (8 spp.),  Arnetta Watson (= Galerga Evans) (3 spp.), and  Malaza Mabille (3 spp.) are Madagascan endemic genera (Lees et al. 2003). We have no information on the early stages and food plants of any of these genera. There are still several interesting opportunities to add to our knowledge of the Afrotropical  Hesperiinae incertae sedis food plants at the genus level. </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/0386D843FF84B116CEEC930B2774FC81	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		MagnoliaPress via Plazi	Cock, Matthew J. W.;Congdon, T. Colin E.;Collins, Steve C.	Cock, Matthew J. W., Congdon, T. Colin E., Collins, Steve C. (2016): Observations on the biology of Afrotropical Hesperiidae (Lepidoptera). Part 9. Hesperiinae incertae sedis: Zingiberales feeders, genera of unknown biology and an overview of the Hesperiinae incertae sedis. Zootaxa 4066 (3): 201-247, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4066.3.1
