identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03FA878540099F69FDBFFD57F9BCB570.text	03FA878540099F69FDBFFD57F9BCB570.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Hominidae Gray 1825	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Family  HOMINIDAE</p>
            <p>(GREAT APES)</p>
            <p>• Large apes with relatively short trunk, broad chest, long arms, robust canine teeth, simple molar teeth, long hands and feet, and no external tail; males larger than females</p>
            <p>n .. „ wu “</p>
            <p>• 70-200 cm.</p>
            <p>• Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions.</p>
            <p>• Lowland to montane equatorial forests, swamps, savanna-woodland mosaic.</p>
            <p>• 3 genera, 6 species, 13 taxa (excluding humans).</p>
            <p>• 2 species Critically Endangered, 4 species Endangered, none Extinct since 1600.</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA878540099F69FDBFFD57F9BCB570	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA878540089F6BFF4EF707FB4CBD9E.text	03FA878540089F6BFF4EF707FB4CBD9E.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pongo pygmaeus (Linnaeus 1760)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>1.</p>
            <p>Bornean Orangutan</p>
            <p> Pongo pygmaeus</p>
            <p>French: Orang-outan de Bornéo / German: Borneo-Orang-Utan / Spanish: Orangutan de Borneo</p>
            <p>Other common names: North-east Bornean Orangutan (morio), North-west Bornean Orangutan (pygmaeus), Southwest Bornean Orangutan (wurmbii)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia pygmaeus Linnaeus, 1760 , </p>
            <p> Indonesia, Kalimantan, Landak River . </p>
            <p>Three subspecies are recognized.</p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> P. p. pygmaeusLinnaeus, 1760 — WBorneoinMalaysia (SSarawakState) andIndonesia (NWestKalimantanProvince).</p>
            <p> P. p. morioOwen, 1837 — N &amp; EBorneoinMalaysia (SabahState) andIndonesia (EastKalimantanProvince); possiblyinNSarawak.</p>
            <p> P. p. wurmbii Tiedemann, 1808 — S Indonesian Borneo (S West &amp; Central Kalimantan provinces). </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 96-97 cm (males) and 72-85 cm (females); weight 60-85 kg (flanged males), 30-65 kg (unflanged males), and 30-45 kg (females). The Bornean Orangutan displays extreme sexual dimorphism. Males continue to get heavier as they get older and can exceed 100 kg. It is typically darker than the Sumatran Orangutan (  Pongo abelii ), being orange to brown, or maroon as adults and with somewhat stringier hair; Bornean Orangutans also tend to be stouter and stockier. Fully mature adult males develop a short beard and protruding cheek pads or “flanges” that are covered with tiny red-brown hairs. Males exhibit bimaturism, existing in two adult morphs: flanged and unflanged. Throat sac of flanged males is highly developed, creating a prominent double chin. Faces of the infants are pink, darkening with age. Prominent eye-rings of pale skin are typical of both orangutan species, but Bornean Orangutans keep these rings throughout adolescence. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Mature riparian, freshwater swamp, peat-swamp, lowland dipterocarp, and hill dipterocarp forest up to elevations of 500 m (occasionally up to 750 m); also young and old secondary forest, forest patches in mosaic landscapes, and occasionally montane forest. Bornean Orangutans now occur in fragmented and isolated populations. Large rivers and mountains act as impassable natural barriers that limit their dispersal, but current fragmentation is largely a product of forest destruction by humans. They are most abundant in lowland forest below 500 m elevation. Flood-prone riparian and freshwater swamp forests and peat swamps produce more regular and consistent fruit crops than dryland dipterocarp forests, and they have the highest densities of Bornean Orangutans.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diets of Bornean Orangutans are mainly fruit, supplemented with leaves, shoots, inner bark, seeds, pith, flowers, soil, herbaceous vegetation, invertebrates (especially termites, ants, and some caterpillars), and very occasionally small vertebrates. They consume parts of more than 200 plant species. Borneo experiences extreme seasonal fluctuations in fruit production due to poor soils and annual and supra-annual seasonal changes. Supra-annual cycles are caused by El Nino/La  Nina — oscillations in the temperature of the surface of the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean. In El Nino years, droughts and food scarcities are severe and result in prolonged reliance on “fallback foods,” particularly inner bark of trees. The Bornean Orangutan’s jaw and tooth enamel are designed for frequent consumption of resources with hard tissues, such as bark and seeds. During periods of fruit abundance, orangutans gorge themselves on succulent fruits and dipterocarp seeds, putting on extra fat reserves that sustain them in times of food scarcity. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Fully flanged adult male Bornean Orangutans and the smaller unflanged males are both capable of reproducing. Females usually give birth to their first infant at c.15 years old. Females have a menstrual cycle of 28-30 days. Mate choiceis largely a female prerogative. Around the time of ovulation, females are usually attracted to the “long calls” of dominant flanged males. If she chooses, she can avoid a flanged male in her vicinity, because she is more agile in the canopy at only one-half the size of the male. Unflanged adult males often force females to mate and can catch them more easily because they are agile and about the same size. Females may initiate, and be the more active partner in, consortships with adult males. A pair may consort for several consecutive days, copulating repeatedly and in various positions, including ventroventral. On average, a female will give birth to 4-5 offspring during her lifetime; the interval between births is 6-1-7-7 years. After a gestation of ¢.254 days,a single infant is born, although twins have been reported in the wild. An infant’s abdomen is sparsely covered with hair, and its face may have a gray-bluish tinge that later turns to pink around the nose and eyes. It clings to the ventral surface of its mother for at least one year, and it may then ride on her back until weaned. During the period of maternal dependency, from birth to weaning, immature Bornean Orangutans learn which foods are safe to eat by observing their mothers and sharing her foods. They also begin to build a mental map of the forest habitat in their mother’s home range. Weaning of Bornean Orangutans is usually completed before the fifth year of infancy, after which they are classified as juvenile. Young individuals become increasingly independent of their mother after the next infant is born, but they may still seek her protection until about 7-8 years old, after which both males and females disperse.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. The Bornean Orangutan is diurnal and mainly arboreal. Orangutans are the largest arboreal animals in the world and are well adapted to life in the canopy. They spend the first part of the day feeding, rest around the middle of the day, and then resume feeding and traveling until the end of the day when they prepare night nests. Bornean Orangutans make day nests less often than Sumatran Orangutans. Flanged male Bornean Orangutans rest the most and travel the least ofall age-sex classes. Males move more widely than females. Males occasionally travel on the ground, mainly when the forest canopy is disrupted, and possibly feel free to do so because of an absence of Tigers (Panthera tigris) on the island. In general, Bornean Orangutans are less sociable than their Sumatran counterparts, and this may be due to the comparatively lower food productivity of forests on Borneo, and thus greater feeding competition. Bornean Orangutans in captivity display cognitively complex behaviors such as tool use; these behaviors were long thought absent in the wild but have now been reported.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Most adult male Bornean Orangutans lead a semi-solitary existence in a large home range that overlaps with 3-4 adult females, each with 1-2 dependent offspring. Flanged males advertise their location to females and other males by regularly emitting long calls. Within a given area, there is normally one dominant flanged male, who is largely intolerant of other adult males in his vicinity. Unflanged males remain silent, which they use as a “stealth” strategy to avoid flanged males and to gain access to females. In general, male home ranges overlap, but dominant males show a tendency to remain in a specific area of forest while subordinate males travel more widely. Adults of the opposite sex come together only for brief consortships. Two adult females will occasionally travel together for a few days (they are usually related), and several adolescents or unflanged males may associate with each other or with an adult of either sex temporarily. Average adult female feeding party size is 1-1-3 individuals. Flanged males usually avoid each other and react aggressively if they come into close proximity. Both sexes disperse at adolescence and leave their mother’s home range, although young females generally remain close to their mother’s home range as they mature; young males disperse farther. Average densities in the Bornean forests are 1-3 ind/km?.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, along with the three subspecies. The Bornean Orangutan is fully protected under both Malaysian and Indonesian law. Although some major populations of Bornean Orangutans are found in protected areas, it is now well established that the vast majority live outside of them, in forests that are already being, or are slated to be, exploited for their resources (timber, coal, or gold) or converted to agriculture (notably for oil palm plantations). In addition, hunting for meat and the pet trade remain major threats across most of Borneo, especially in the interior. In some areas, hunting has probably been directly responsible for local extinctions. Orangutans living in close proximity to plantations are likely to raid crops, for which they are persecuted as pests and shot by crop owners. There has been an estimated decline of well over 50% in the overall population of Bornean Orangutans during the last 60 years, and this decline is expected to continue at its present rate due to continuing forest loss. Fire is another notable threat throughout Borneo. Fires destroyed 90% of Kutai National Park in 1983 and 1998, reducing its orangutan population from ¢.4000 individuals to only c¢.600 individuals. In Central Kalimantan, more than 4000 km? of peatland forest burned in 1997-1998 and an estimated 8000 orangutans died, representing a 33% loss of the species in just one year. Similarly, drought in Central Kalimantan is thought to have killed hundreds of orangutans in six months of 2006. Because of their close phylogenetic proximity, orangutans and people are susceptible to similar diseases, and interspecific contamination is a recognized threat. The most recent population estimate for the Bornean Orangutan, obtained between 2000 and 2003, was 45,000-69,000 individuals living in ¢.86,000 km* of habitat. Nevertheless, the inaccessibility of much of their range and poorvisibility in dense forests, combined with the low densities, semi-solitary habits, and cryptic nature of Bornean Orangutans, makes surveying them with precision difficult. Currently, no more than 16% of the Bornean Orangutan’s habitat is protected. Where logging has occurred and forests are fragmented, conservation measures must be taken to create corridors and prevent genetic isolation, allowing gene flow between geographically separated subpopulations.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Ancrenaz, Ambu et al. (2010), Ancrenaz, Gimenez et al. (2005), Ancrenaz, Goossens et al. (2004), Bruford et al. (2010), Goossens, Kapar et al. (2011), Goossens, Setchell et al. (2006), Harrison et al. (2009), Husson et al. (2009), Knott et al. (2009), Lyon (1907, 1911), Markham &amp; Groves (1990), Marshall et al. (2006), Meijaard, Buchori et al. (2011), Meijaard, Mengersen et al. (2011), Morrogh-Bernard, Husson et al. (2009), Morrogh-Bernard, Morf et al. (2011), Muehlenbein &amp; Ancrenaz (2009), Muehlenbein et al. (2010), van Noordwijk et al. (2009), Russon, Wich et al. (2009), van Schaik et al. (2009), Singleton et al. (2009), Taylor (2009), Wich, Utami-Atmoko et al. (2004), Wich, Vogel et al. (2011), Wich, de Vries et al. (2009).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA878540089F6BFF4EF707FB4CBD9E	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA8785400B9F6AFA87FEE0F837B401.text	03FA8785400B9F6AFA87FEE0F837B401.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pongo abelii Lesson 1827	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>2.</p>
            <p>Sumatran Orangutan</p>
            <p> Pongo abelii</p>
            <p>French: Orang-outan de Sumatra / German: Sumatra-Orang-Utan / Spanish: Orangutan de Sumatra</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Pongo abelii Lesson, 1827 , </p>
            <p> Indonesia, Sumatra.</p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. NW Sumatra (Aceh &amp; North Sumatra provinces).</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 94-99 cm (males) and 68-84 cm (females); weight 60-85 kg (flanged males), 30-65 kg (unflanged males), and 30-45 kg (females). The Sumatran Orangutan displays extreme sexual dimorphism. Males continue to get heavier as they get older and can reach 100 kg. Sumatran Orangutans are generally slightly slimmer and more linear in build than Bornean Orangutans (  Pongo pygmaeus ), and they have longer, paler, dense, and fleecy cinnamon-colored hair. Adult males have a pronounced luxuriant beard and mustache, and flanges that lie flat against the face and are thickly covered with fine white hairs, giving a wide appearance. Adult female Sumatran Orangutans also have well-developed beards. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Primary lowland rainforest, swamp forest, and montane forest up to 1500 m above sea level, although elevations below 500 m are preferred. Densities of Sumatran Orangutans plummet by up to 60% with even low-intensity logging. Sumatran forests are highly productive due to Sumatra’s rich volcanic soils. Mast fruiting events occur, but fluctuations in food availability are less dramatic than on Borneo. These ecological conditions contribute to differences in behavior and life history between Sumatran and Bornean orangutans.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. Sumatran Orangutans are primarily frugivorous, but they also eat young and mature leaves, seeds, shoots, bark, pith, flowers, eggs, soil, and invertebrates (termites and ants). Ripe succulent fruits are preferred; large fruits with hard husks are also eaten. They eat parts of up to 379 plant species, and up to 16 animal species have been recorded in their diets. Meat-eating has been observed (slow lorises, genus Nycticebus) but at very low frequency.</p>
            <p>Breeding. Female Sumatran Orangutans give birth for the first time at c.15 years of age. Adult females have a menstrual cycle of 28-30 days. Females initiate and are the more active partner in consortships with adult males. A pair may consort for several days or weeks and copulate repeatedly. On average, a female bears 4-5 offspring during her lifetime. Sumatran Orangutans have the longest interbirth intervals (mean 9-3 years) of any mammalian species. After a gestation of c.254 days, a single infant is born. At birth, the infant’s abdomen is sparsely covered with hair, and the face is normally very wrinkled for the first few days. It clings to the ventral surface ofits mother until it is nearly one year old, and it may continue to ride on her back until 4-6 years of age. Sumatran Orangutans are weaned at c.7 years, although they remain in closely association with their mothers for 7-9 years. Adult male Sumatran Orangutans exhibit bimaturism. Dominant flanged males monopolize access to females in a localized area, and they are females’ preferred choice of mate. Females usually remain within hearing distance of a dominant flanged male. Unflanged males seem to arrest development of secondary sexually characteristics, such as flanges, in the presence of a clearly dominant male, and this suppression may last for many years. Unflanged male Sumatran Orangutans do not force females to copulate as often as unflanged male Bornean Orangutans do. Most pregnancies of Sumatran Orangutans are the result of females copulating willingly. Longevity is not known precisely, but wild Sumatran Orangutans have been estimated to reach ages of 58 years (male) and 53 years (female).</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. Sumatran Orangutans are diurnal and almost exclusively arboreal, which may in part be due to the presence of Tigers (Panthera tigris) on Sumatra, which are known to prey on them. Large male Sumatran Orangutans occasionally travel short distances on the ground, but females virtually never come down from the forest canopy. Both sexes spend the early part of the day feeding, with a period of rest around midday, and resume feeding and traveling until the end of the day when they build a night nest. Sumatran Orangutans almost always make day nests during rest periods. Flanged males rest the most and travel the least of all age-sex classes.</p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Male and female Sumatran Orangutans live in home ranges with considerable overlap. Males travel more widely than females, over vast areas of forest, but the true extent of their home range size remains a mystery. Nevertheless,it has been inferred that males’ home ranges are several times larger than those of females. Flanged males advertise their location to females and other males by regularly emitting “long calls.” Males are generally solitary, females travel with their offspring, and adolescents of both sexes may form small groupsas they become increasingly independent oftheir mothers. Adult female Sumatran Orangutans in high-density populations in peat swamp regularly travel together for several days at a time. Average adult female feeding party size is 1-5-2 individuals, but up to 14 individuals have been observed feeding in the same large fruiting tree. The greater productivity of Sumatran forests allows Sumatran Orangutans to maintain a stable fruit diet, occupy large home ranges, and be more social than Bornean Orangutans. Sumatran Orangutans show cognitively complex and innovative behavior, including tool use, and have a larger repertoire of cultural behaviors than do Bornean Orangutans. In swamp forest, Sumatran Orangutans regularly make and use tools to eat honey or seeds of the fruits of the “cemengang” (  Neesia ,  Malvaceae ). High densities of Sumatran Orangutans in peat swamp forests (as many as 8 ind/km?) seem to provide more opportunities for social learning. Sumatran Orangutans have a slightly larger average brain size than Bornean Orangutans, which may be related to their greater sociality and more frugivorous diet. </p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Orangutan is seriously threatened by logging (both legal and illegal), wholesale conversion of forest to agricultural land, especially oil palm plantations, and habitat fragmentation by road construction. Individuals are also hunted and kept illegally as pets, usually as a by-product of habitat conversion and conflict with farmers at the forest edge, which results in many orangutans being killed as pests. In the Batang Toru region, Sumatran Orangutans are still hunted in the forest. Increasing fragmentation may soon result in further subdivisions of the remaining populations. In some areas, the rate of loss during the 1990s was ¢.1000 orangutans/year, and the total population of Sumatran Orangutans is thought to have declined by more than 50% prior to 2000. In 2006, the total population remaining was estimated at 3500-12,000 individuals. A major stronghold is the 26,000 km* Leuser Ecosystem Conservation Area, which supports ¢.75% of the remaining Sumatran Orangutans and has the highest density populations in peat swamp forests on the western coast. It was created by a Presidential decree in 1998 that does not exclude non-forest uses but stresses the importance of sustainable management with conservation of natural resources as the primary goal. Also within the Leuser Ecosystem is the 9000 km* Gunung Leuser National Park, a mountainous area that supports ¢.25% of the remaining Sumatran Orangutans. Gunung Leuseris also a Man and Biosphere Reserve and part of the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of the Sumatra World Heritage Cluster Site. There are no other notable large conservation areas with Sumatran Orangutans outside the Leuser Ecosystem, but there is one more potentially viable population (c.600 individuals) in the Batang Toru forests, southwest of Lake Toba in North Sumatra. Efforts are underway to obtain protected status for this area, which is currently slated as a timber concession. Although Sumatran Orangutans themselves are strictly protected under Indonesian law, better legal protection of large areas of primary lowland forest is needed to secure their long-term future. A few small fragments of forest outside of the main blocks may still contain small numbers of Sumatran Orangutans, but these are not considered viable in the long term.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Hardus et al. (2012), Husson et al. (2009), Knott et al. (2009), Lyon (1908), Markham &amp; Groves (1990), Marshall, Ancrenaz et al. (2009), Morrogh-Bernard et al. (2009), Napier &amp; Napier (1967), van Noordwijk et al. (2009), Russon, van Schaik et al. (2009), Russon, Wich et al. (2009), van Schaik, Ancrenaz et al. (2003), van Schaik, van Noordwijk et al. (2009), Singleton et al. (2004), Taylor &amp; van Schaik (2007), Utami-Atmoko &amp; van Schaik (2010), Utami Atmoko et al. (2009), Wich, Singleton et al. (2003), Wich, Utami-Atmoko etal. (2006), Wich, Vogel et al. (2011), Wich, de Vries et al. (2009).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA8785400B9F6AFA87FEE0F837B401	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA8785400C9F6FFF4EF71BFBBAB8F8.text	03FA8785400C9F6FFF4EF71BFBBAB8F8.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gorilla gorilla (Savage 1847)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>3.</p>
            <p>Western Gorilla</p>
            <p> Gorilla gorilla</p>
            <p>French: Gorille de I'Ouest / German: Westlicher Gorilla / Spanish: Gorila occidental</p>
            <p>Other common names: Lowland Gorilla; Cross River Gorilla (diehli), Western Lowland Gorilla (gorilla)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Troglodytes gorilla Savage, 1847</p>
            <p> Gabon: Mpongwe.</p>
            <p> In 2001, a small population ofgorillas was discovered in the Ebo Forest of western Cameroon, geographically intermediate between the subspecies  gorilla and diehli Genetic analyses are neededto determine if the Ebo gorillas are a distinct taxonomic group. Two subspecies are recognized. </p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> G.g.gorillaSavage,1847—SCameroon SWCentralAfricanRepublic, EquatorialGuinea, Gabon, RepublicoftheCongo, andNAngola (Cabinda). </p>
            <p> G. g. diehli Matschie, 1904 — SE Nigeria and W Cameroon. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 103-107 cm (males); weight 145-191 kg (males) and 57-73 kg (females); standing height 138-180 cm (males) and 109-152 cm (females) The Western  Gorilla displays extreme sexual dimorphism; males are about twice the size offemales. Ears are small and hidden in the hair. Teeth arerelatively small except for large incisors. With the exception ofthe face, ears, hands, and feet (which are naked and black), bodyis covered in coarse brown hair; brows are sparsely haired | Fully mature adult male Western Gorillas develop a series of secondary sexual characteristics: a pronouncedsagittal crest (a bonystructure on top of the cranium, to which massive jaw muscles areattached); large canine teeth; broad chest that becomes bare with age; broad shoulders; and hair on the saddlethat is replaced with short grayishwhite hairs, hence they are popularly referredto as “silverbacks.” Some male “Western Lowland Gorillas” (G. g.  gorilla ) have a rich chestnut-color crown and sagittal crest, which contrasts with the rest of the body. “Cross River Gorillas” (G. g. diehlr) differ from Western Lowland Gorillas both in the shapeofthe skull and their genetics. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Western Lowland Gorillas inhabit a variety of lowland forest types, including openand closed-canopy moist mature, seasonally inundated, and disturbed and secondary (regenerating) forest, usually below 500 m elevation. In northern Republic of the Congo, they occur at high density in vast swamps. Gorillas in the Ebo forest range up to 1200 m. Cross River Gorillas are confined to forested hill country in a mountainous landscapeat elevations of 200-1900 m, in patches of lowland, submontane, and montane forest. Their populationis highly fragmented and scattered across c.8000 km?, tenuously connected byforest corridors, much of which is under no for-mal protection. Cross River Gorillas persist in steep terrain that is difficult for hunters to reach.</p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Western Gorillas feed predominantly on ripe succulent fruit and terrestrial herbaceous vegetation, mainly pith of  Aframomum (Zingiberaceae) and shoots of  Marantaceae . Whenfruit is scarce, large quantities ofterrestrial herbaceous vegetation are consumed, supplemented by protein-rich mature leaves and bark of  Milicia (Moraceae) trees. Some populations of Western Lowland  Gorilla specialize on aquatic herbs. Cross River Gorillas endure a longer than average dry season, during which their consumption offruit drops to only 1-24%offecal weight. The only animal matter ingested deliberately is weaver ants (Qecophylla longinoda,  Formicidae ) or termites (  Cubitermes ,  Termitidae ), which Western Lowland Gorillas eat every day when available. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Male Western Gorillas take 18 years to reach full maturity, and females take c.10 years. Females usually transfer to another group when they reach maturity. Young males either becomesolitary or remain in their natal group iftolerated by the domi-nant male. The dominant male mates with all adult females in his group. In captivity, length of the menstrual cycle is ¢.32 days and mean length of gestation is 257 days. There is no birth season. Infant mortality up to three years ofage is 22-65%. Forthe first few years oflife, infants are highly dependent on their mothers’ care. Females carry their young ventrally in the early months; infants begin to travel dorsally within a few weeks. Infants suckle for 4-5 years, causing lactational amenorrhea in the mother. Offspring sharetheir mothers’ night nests until they are weanedorthe next sibling is born. Young Western Gorillas are weaned at 4-5 years ofage, from which point, they no longertravel on their mothers’ back. Interbirth intervals are 4-6 years. Western Gorillas appearto reproduce more slowly than Eastern Gorillas (G. beringer). Maximum life span is unknown but likely c¢.40 years.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. The Western  Gorilla is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. They are more arboreal than generally presumed, and even adult males often climb to heights of 40 m in the canopy to feed. They are active for c.12 hours/day and spend most of that time foraging and resting. They build nests to sleep in every night, usually on the ground but sometimes in trees. </p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. Daily movement of the Western  Gorilla averages 2 km (1-1-5-2 km) as they travel widely in search of ripe fruit. Annual home range sizes are 10-6-15-4 km?*, and home ranges of neighboring groups overlap extensively. Western Gorillas are not territorial. On the rare occasions that two groups meet, impressive posturing by adult malesis likely, but mutual avoidance is the usual response. Western Gorillas live in cohesive, relatively stable groups composed of an adult male (silverback), multiple females, their offspring, and immature relatives. Median group size is ten weaned individuals, and the maximum observed is 22 individuals. Multimale groups are rare. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List, along with both subspecies. Listed under Class A in the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Gorillas are protected by national and international laws in all of their native countries, but law enforcement is generally weak. Western Lowland Gorillas total ¢.140,000-160,000 individuals, perhaps two-thirds of which are in the northern Republic of the Congo. Important populations also remain in Gabon and south-eastern Cameroon. The population in Equatorial Guinea was recently assessed at a few thousand individuals. It is unlikely that Western Gorillas are still resident in the Mayombe region of DR Congo, but transient individuals may cross into DR Congo from Cabinda (Angola), where a few hundred Western Lowland Gorillas are thought to persist. The number of Cross River gorillas totals only 200-300 individuals, fewer than the “Mountain Gorillas” (G. beringei beringei) in the Virunga Volcanoes region, but distributed over an area 17-6 times larger. Cross River Gorillas are found at 10-11 localities in rugged highlands, where they have so far found refuge from hunters. Major threats to the survival of the Western  Gorilla are intense poaching for bushmeat, habitat loss, and disease (notably Ebola haemorrhagic fever). Poaching of great apes is usually linked to the commercial bushmeat trade, which supplies bushmeat to cities and towns. There is strong cultural attachment to bushmeat in Central Africa, and this trade has become one of the principal threats to wildlife throughout Central Africa. As wildlife populations have been diminished, hunters move progressively further into remote areas, creating what is now known as the “empty forest” syndrome. Studies of poaching and this illegal trade have estimated that nine tons of bushmeat are extracted from an area of 50,000 km? in the Congo Basin every day, which is clearly unsustainable. Mechanized logging in the Western Gorilla’s range is usually selective, with relatively low levels of offtake and disturbance, so gorillas can survive if hunting is controlled. More detrimentalis infrastructure, such as logging roads that penetrate previously inaccessible forests. Slash-and-burn clearing of forest for small-scale agriculture is a threat in heavily populated areas. Numbers of Western Lowland Gorillas in Gabon were halved by poaching and a deadly strain of Ebola hemorrhagic fever between 1980 and 2000. The Ebola epidemic then moved into the Republic of the Congo and killed another 5000 gorillas. Ebola is still considered to be a high risk to gorillas and Chimpanzees (  Pan troglodytes ) in this region. The major international conservation organizations have programs throughout Central Africa and are working toward the long-term survival of Western Gorillas. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Bourry et al. (2006), Cousins (1990), Dowsett-Lemaire &amp; Dowsett (2001), Groves (1986, 1992, 2001), Oates (2011), Oates et al. (2007), Rainey et al. (2010), Robbins et al. (2004), Ruffler &amp; Muray (2012), Sarmiento et al. (1996), Stokes et al. (2010), Tutin et al. (2005), Williamson &amp; Butynski (2013b).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA8785400C9F6FFF4EF71BFBBAB8F8	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA8785400F9F6EFF9BF6CFF583B288.text	03FA8785400F9F6EFF9BF6CFF583B288.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gorilla beringei Matschie 1903	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>4.</p>
            <p>Eastern Gorilla</p>
            <p> Gorilla beringei</p>
            <p>French: Gorille de I'Est / German: Ostlicher Gorilla / Spanish: Gorila oriental</p>
            <p>Other common names: Eastern Lowland/Grauer’s Gorilla (graueri), Mountain Gorilla (beringei)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Gorilla beringei Matschie, 1903 , </p>
            <p> Rwanda, Mount Sabyinyo.</p>
            <p>Gorillas of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in south-western Uganda are currently listed as the subspecies beringei. The mtDNA of this population does not differ from beringe: in the Virungas, but they look more like graueri. Further research is needed to clarify their taxonomy. Two subspecies are recognized.</p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> G. b. beringe: Matschie, 1903 — VirungaVolcanoesRegioninEDRCongo, SWUganda, andNWRwanda, alsoinBwindiImpenetrableNationalParkinSWUganda.</p>
            <p> G. b. graueri Matschie, 1914 — E DR Congo, inhabiting three major regions (Kahuzi-Biéga-Kasese, [tombwe Massif, and Maiko-Tayna). </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 101-120 cm (males); weight 120-209 kg (males) and c.60-98 kg (females); standing height 159-196 cm (males) and 130-150 cm (females). The Eastern  Gorilla displays extreme sexual dimorphism; males can be twice the size of females. It is somewhat larger than the Western  Gorilla (  Gorilla gorilla ) and is therefore the largest of all primates. Eastern Gorillas, the “Mountain  Gorilla ” (G. b. beringei) in particular, have shorter arms and are stockier than Western Gorillas. Head is large, and ears are small and hidden in the hair. Teeth are relatively small except for large incisors. Mountain Gorillas have large jaws and a wider facial skeleton than other  Gorilla taxa. With the exception of face, ears, hands, and feet (which are naked and black), body is covered in coarse black hair. Hair of the Mountain  Gorilla is thick and long, especially on the arms of adult males. Fully mature adult males develop a pronounced sagittal crest and have large canine teeth; broad chest and shoulders; a bare chest with age; and hair on the back that is replaced with short grayish-white hairs, spreading to the thighs later in life; hence, they are popularly referred to as “silverbacks.” </p>
            <p> Habitat. “Grauer’s Gorillas” (G. b. graueri) occur at 600-2900 m above sea level in dense mature and secondary lowland, submontane, and montane forest and, where present, in bamboo forest (  Cyperus ,  Cyperaceae ), swamp, and peat bog. Mountain Gorillas are restricted to elevations above 1850 m in the Virunga Volcanoes (1400 m in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park) by human occupation of lower elevations. They range up to 3800 m. During the rainy season, they frequent bamboo forest. They also visit alpine and subalpine grassland on the volcanic peaks. “Eastern Lowland  Gorilla ”is a misnomer because there is considerable overlap in the elevational ranges of Grauer’s and Mountain gorillas. </p>
            <p> Food and Feeding. Diet of the Eastern  Gorilla varies greatly with elevation and its effect on food availability. Grauer’s Gorillas have a more diverse and seasonal diet at lower elevations. Grauer’s Gorillas in lowland forest and Bwindi gorillas are more frugivorous: fruit forms ¢.25% of their total diet. Other dietary items include leaves,pith, bark, vines, herbs, and ants. Mountain Gorillas in the Virunga Volcanoes Region are largely herbivorous and feed on stems, pith, leaves, bark, and occasionally ants. Their favored food items are wild celery, thistles, nettles, bedstraw, wood, and roots. Both Eastern  Gorilla subspecies feed almost exclusively on young bamboo shoots when they are in season. </p>
            <p>Breeding. Male Eastern Gorillas become “blackbacks™ at 8-12 years of age and are capable of reproducing. They are considered silverbacks at twelve years of age and reach their full adult size at 15 years. Female menarche occurs at 6-7 years of age, followed by a period of adolescent sterility. Female Eastern Gorillas emigrate upon reaching sexual maturity to join another group or a solitary male. Average age of first parturition is 9-9 years. Females have a menstrual cycle of ¢.28 days and are proceptive for 1-4 days around the time of ovulation. In unimale groups, one male mates with all adult females. In multimale groups, females often mate with more than one male, but the dominant male is the partner in most copulations. Subordinate males sometimes copulate surreptitiously, but they are harassed by a dominant male if detected. There is no birth season. Gestation is ¢.255 days. For the first few years oflife, infants are highly dependent on their mothers’ care and sleep in her nest at night. Females carry their young ventrally in the early months; infants start to travel dorsally within a few weeks of birth. Females experience lactational amenorrhea while suckling infants. Young are weaned at 3-4 years of age, from which point, they no longer travel on their mothers’ back. Females give birth every 3—4 years and generally produce 3—4 surviving offspring during their reproductive life span. Maximum life span is unknown, but it is certainly over 40 years.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. The Eastern  Gorilla is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. After waking, they feed intensively and then alternate rest, traveling, and feeding until bedding down for the night. Mountain Gorillas spend 55% of the day foraging, 34% resting, 7% travelling, and 4% in other activities. Eastern Gorillas build nests in trees, but the majority of their nests are on the ground. </p>
            <p> Movements, Home range and Social organization. The distance traveled daily by Eastern Gorillas varies with elevation. Fruit availability decreases with increasing elevation, and with less fruit in the diet, they range shorter distances. Grauer’s and “Bwindi” gorillas occupy 16-28 km® annually. Groups of Mountain  Gorilla in the Virunga Volcanoes use areas as small as 6 km” but as large as 34 km”. Eastern Gorillas are not territorial, and there is extensive overlap between the home ranges of different groups. Grauer’s gorillas move ¢.1500 m/day, whereas Mountain Gorillas usually travel less than 600 m/day. Eastern  Gorilla groups are polygynous or polygynandrous, with one or more adult silverback males, several females, their offspring, and immature relatives forming the core of relatively stable groups. Median group size is ten weaned individuals; maximum observed group size is 65 individuals. About 40% of groups contain more than one adult male, some as many as nine. Infanticide of unweaned offspring sometimes occurs when an outsider male challenges a resident silverback. If the dominant male of a multimale group dies, another resident male is likely to take over leadership, assuring some continuity and preventing group disintegration and infanticide. </p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, with the Mountain  Gorilla classified as Critically Endangered and Grauer’s  Gorilla as Endangered. Listed under Class A in the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Although Eastern Gorillas are protected by national and international laws, both subspecies are threatened by illegal activities. Grauer’s  Gorilla habitat is estimated to cover an area of 100,000 km? east of the Lualaba River and the Burundi-Rwanda-Uganda border. Surveys in the 1990s estimated a total population of 8660-25,500 Grauer’s Gorillas in discrete areas of their expansive habitat. Their current status is poorly known because few surveys have been possible since the mid-1990s due to insecurity in eastern DR Congo. Local declines have been documented and the total population remaining is perhaps 2000-10,000 individuals. If more precise data were available, Grauer’s  Gorilla would without doubt be reclassified as Critically Endangered. Mountain Gorillas are restricted to two refugia that have been cut off from forest at lower elevation by advancing agriculture. One population occupies 215 km? in the 330km* Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in south-western Uganda, and its numbers are stable. The other population occupies ¢.375 km? in the 455km* Virunga Volcanoes region and its numbers are increasing—nonetheless a total of only ¢.780 individuals remain in this small and vulnerable region. The main threats to Eastern Gorillas are poaching, habitat loss, and civil war. Capture of live orphans is a secondary threat (after the mother has been killed and eaten), except where infant Mountain Gorillas are the principle target, fulfilling the demands ofa fictitious, illegal international market. DR Congo has a legal framework for managing national parks and wildlife, but has difficulty applying its laws, and political will is limited. Underlying this is the difficult sociopolitical context: breakdown in law and order during years of conflict, combined with poverty and economic insecurity, which exacerbate difficulties of enforcing the law within the Grauer’s Gorilla’s range. Armed conflict and collapse of law and order in DR Congo have caused a significant rise in the illegal circulation of military weapons and ammunition. Formertraditional hunters now have access to guns, notably the AK47, and commercial trade in bushmeat has increased with the spread of firearms, often supplied by government soldiers and rebel militia. Illegal miners are decimating the main stronghold ofthe Grauer’s  Gorilla . Several international conservation organizations have been working in difficult circumstances for decades to support national park authorities and try to secure the Eastern Gorillas’ survival. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Bradley et al. (2005), Cousins (1990), Czekala &amp; Sicotte (2000), Gray et al. (2010), Groves (1986, 1992, 2001), Guschanski et al. (2009), Hall et al. (1998), IUCN &amp; ICCN (2012), Nixon et al. (2012), Schaller (1963), Sleeman et al. (2000), Watts (1988), Williamson &amp; Butynski (2013a), Williamson &amp; Fawcett (2008).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA8785400F9F6EFF9BF6CFF583B288	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA878540009F63FF35F750F5DBB688.text	03FA878540009F63FF35F750F5DBB688.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pan troglodytes (Blumenbach 1775)	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>5.</p>
            <p>Chimpanzee</p>
            <p> Pan troglodytes</p>
            <p>French: Chimpanzé / German: Schimpanse / Spanish: Chimpancé</p>
            <p>Other common names: Chimpanzee, Common Chimpanzee, Robust Chimpanzee; Central Chimpanzee (troglodytes), Eastern Chimpanzee (schweinfurthii), Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee (elliot), Western Chimpanzee (verus)</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Simia troglodytes Blumenbach, 1775 , </p>
            <p> Angola.</p>
            <p>There are few morphological differences among the four, somewhat ill-defined, subspecies, but mtDNA analyses indicate that they are distinct from one another. Four subspecies are recognized.</p>
            <p>Subspecies and Distribution.</p>
            <p> P. t. troglodytesBlumenbach, 1775 — SECameroon (SofSanagaRiver), SWCentralAfricanRepublic, DRCongo (WofCongo / Ubangirivers), EquatorialGuinea, Gabon, NRepublicoftheCongo, andNAngola (Cabinda).</p>
            <p> P. t. elliotMatschie, 1914 — SENigeriaandW &amp; CCameroon.</p>
            <p> P. t. schweinfurthiiGiglioli, 1872 — ECentralAfricanRepublic, SWSouthSudan, N &amp; EDRCongo, WUganda, Rwanda, Burundi, andWTanzania.</p>
            <p> P. t. verus Schwarz, 1934 — S Senegal, SW Mali, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and SWNigeria; extinct in Gambia, andpossibly extinct in Burkina Faso, Togo, and Benin. </p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 77-96 cm (males) and 70-91 cm (females); weight 28-70 kg (males) and 20-50 kg (females). The Chimpanzee is sexually dimorphic. Like all catarrhine primates, mature chimpanzees have a 12/2, C1/1,P 2/2, M 3/3 (x2) dental formula. Body hair is long andblack, often turning gray with age on rump, back and chins of both sexes. Female Chimpanzees, in particular, have a tendencyto go bald on the crown. Ears are large, and browridges are well developed and generally somewhat raised. Chimpanzees share a wide rangeoffacial expressions with their human relatives, although their forehead musculatureis less well developed and their lips more flexible. Chimpanzees typically travel on all fours both terrestrially and arboreally. Their form of quadrupedal locomotion involves knuckle-walking. Since their arms are longer than their legs, chimpanzees use their knuckles for support while walking on the soles oftheir feet. Chimpanzees are accomplished climbers; they are also able to brachiate or swing using their powerful arms and to cling and hang from branches using any oftheir four limbs, which are equipped with opposable toes or thumbs. Theyare also capable of bipedal locomotion, which they perform most often overshort distances when carrying objects ortravelling arboreally. Face, ears, hands, feet, and anogenital region are naked and normally flesh-colored, although the skin on the face darkens with age. The “Central Chimpanzee” (P. t.  troglodytes ) tends to be larger than the other three subspecies, especially the males, but variation within subspecies is greater than between them. </p>
            <p>Habitat. Chimpanzees have the widest geographic distribution of any great ape. They are found discontinuously across the forest belt of Africa, occupying mature, moist, closed-canopy lowland, submontane, montane, secondary, swamp, and galleryforests. They inhabit dry forest, and savanna-woodland mosaic habitats in the drier extremes oftheir distribution. The maximum confirmedelevational limits for three of the subspecies are 1607 m for the “Western Chimpanzee” (P. (. verus), ¢.2000 m for the “Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee” (P. t. ellioti), and 2790 mfor the “Eastern Chimpanzee” (Pt. schweinfurthii).</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. Chimpanzees are omnivorous and opportunistic feeders; some communities include as manyas ¢.200 different fooditems in their diet. J. Goodall’s study at Gombe, Tanzania, was seminal in demystifying two human “trademarks”— the use oftools andsocial hunting of mammal prey. It is now well established that Chimpanzees use tools throughout their range and hunt and eat meat to varying degrees. The dietary repertoire and food processing techniques of each Chimpanzee communitycan differ quite remarkably across communities. Fruit, however, forms the bulk ofthe diet. It is typically supplemented with terrestrial herbaceous vegetation, leaves, stems, seeds, flowers, bark, pith, honey, mushrooms, resin, eggs, and animal prey such as insects and medium-sized mammals. Chimpanzees eat more than 30 species of mammals, mainly primates such as the red colobus (Procolobus), a favored prey of some communities. Theyare the most carnivorous ofthe great apes. Although Chimpanzees are renowned hunters, the degree of cooperation involved in social hunting sprees varies across communities. Adult male Chimpanzees often coordinate their movements when pursing target preyin order to maximize capture success. Prey are usually pursued, captured, and killed by adult males who share the meat with other members of the community, especially participant hunters and adult females. Chimpanzee males may also share wild or cultivated fruit items with sexually mature females. Communities living in highly degraded and fragmented habitats regularly crop-raid for cultivated foods, especially during periods offruit scarcity; as many as 36 different cultivar species are eaten by Chimpanzees across their range. Chimpanzees are also proficient tool users, with each community presenting its own signature set of tool-use behaviors, parsimoniously interpreted as evidence for culture in the species. Tool use by Chimpanzees serves multiple functions and purposes, including hygiene, defense, communication, exploration, reaching, and comfort. However, most tool use occurs in a subsistence context aimed at animal prey and/or embedded foods. In Senegal, Chimpanzees, especially females, use sharp sticks to skewer galagos living in tree holes. Western Chimpanzee communities as far East as Cameroon employ a mobile or embedded stone anvil and wooden clubs or stones to crack open nuts. Most known populations excel in extractive foraging of insects or their honey. They commonly target aggressive ants or termites using flexible probes of vegetation to lure insects from earthen mounds, underground nests or arboreal hollows. Chimpanzees in some locations also dig up tubers with the aid ofsticks or pieces of bark. Although most tool use involves the manufacture and/or use of a single tool, some communities specialize in the use of a tool set. A tool set often implies the compulsory sequential use of two types of tool to attain a specific goal; for example, one stout tool is used to perforate the termite mound and another more flexible slender tool to fish for termites from the newly created passageway.</p>
            <p>Breeding. Male and female Chimpanzees reach puberty at 7-8 years of age. Males gain most muscle mass and testicular volume by 15 years of age. During a c.35day menstrual cycle, females have a large, pink perineal swelling that persists for 10-12 days and varies in firmness and attractiveness to males, reaching maximum volume and turgidity around ovulation. The first menses is followed by a 2-3year period of adolescent infertility. Mating is opportunistic, and a proceptive female may copulate frequently with numerous males in her community. The first parturition is generally at 13-14 years of age, but as early as 9-5 years in one population of Western Chimpanzees. Chimpanzees reproduce throughout the year, with peaks in birthrate following conception during seasons of abundant food. Gestation is ¢.230 days. The norm is a single infant, but occasionally twins are born. Females carry their infants ventrally in the early months. Infants begin to travel dorsally within a few weeks of birth. Suckling causes lactational amenorrhea. Offspring share their mothers’ night nests until they are weaned at 4-5 years of age, or until the next sibling is born. The interbirth interval averages 4-6-7-2 years when the preceding infant survives. Females can remain reproductive into their late forties. Maximum life span is unknown, but it is thought to be c.50 years. Female Chimpanzees can give birth to as many as nine offspring during their lifetime, but on average only about 30% survive beyond infancy.</p>
            <p>Activity patterns. The Chimpanzee is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. Activity budgets vary between sites (43-55% feeding, 12-14% traveling, and 25-39% resting). Every night they build a tree nest to sleep in, although, at some sites, some individuals nest on the ground. Chimpanzees also regularly construct terrestrial or arboreal nests for resting during the day. Chimpanzees often prefer certain nesting sites and habitat types, and are highly selective in their choice of nest tree species. Nest height varies from ground level to more than 40 m. Most nests are built at 10-20 m above the ground; however, nest height varies with vegetation type, season and community-specific nesting patterns. Searching for fruit in tropical forests requires spatial memory and mental mapping. Forest-dwelling Chimpanzees in Ivory Coast are known to travel efficiently and recurrently between preferred rare fruiting tree species. They also travel for longer when targeting known profitable and attractive food resources, which they generally revisit more often than expected. Chimpanzees are capable of memorizing individual locations of thousands of trees and preferred food sources.</p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Chimpanzees live in multimale— multifemale, fission-fusion communities averaging 35 members. The largest known community has c.150 members. A single community varies its size by fissioning into smaller parties according to activity and resource availability (food and access to cycling females). Party sizes tend therefore to be smaller during periods of fruit scarcity. The most common aggregations are a mixture of males and females with immature offspring. Distance traveled daily averages 2-3 km, with occasional excursions exceeding 10 km. Savanna-dwelling chimpanzees generally range further daily than their forest-dwelling counterparts. Communities living in forest habitats have annual home ranges of 6-83-32 km?, while in savanna woodland, they range over much wider areas, often exceeding 65 km*. Typically, the community’s home range is defended by highly territorial males that patrol boundaries and may attack, and even kill, members of neighboring communities. Adult female Chimpanzees often spend time alone with their offspring or in a party with other females. Juveniles and adolescents most often travel with their mothers; young males spend increasing amounts of time with other males as they grow older. Females generally disperse from their natal group when they reach sexual maturity. Males typically remain in their natal group and are integrated into the male social hierarchy by 12-16 years old. Male Chimpanzees are dominant to females and are normally more gregarious. Males tend to develop strong selective bonds with one another, groom one another frequently, and often participate in cooperative activities such as boundary patrols and hunting. Linear dominance hierarchies among males are dynamic and are maintained via a complex web of affiliative and aggressive interactions. Males often form and use alliances to bolster their individual position in the hierarchy. Rank is generally maintained via aggressive displays toward subordinate individuals. Mutual grooming is thought to foster relationships and coalitions that can lead to or help maintain higher status.</p>
            <p>Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List, along with the four subspecies. Listed under Class A in the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Chimpanzees are protected by national and international laws throughout their range, but enforcement is generally weak. Current total population size is unknown, and the quality of available information differs for each subspecies. The most threatened subspecies is the Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee, numbering just 3500-9000 individuals. Next is the Western Chimpanzee, estimated in 2003 to number 21,300-55,600 individuals, with ¢.50% of the remaining individuals of this subspecies found in Guinea. In 2010, a national survey of Chimpanzees in Sierra Leone found a larger than anticipated population of 3100-10,400 individuals. Nevertheless, 90% of Chimpanzees in nearby Ivory Coast vanished between 1990 and 2007, and other countries of the region could have lost Chimpanzees at a comparable rate. Chimpanzees in Guinea have not been surveyed since 1998, and only a few hundred remain in Guinea-Bissau and Senegal. Numbers of Eastern Chimpanzees could be as high as 200,000-250,000 individuals, with the majority occurring over a wide area of DR Congo, Uganda, and Tanzania. Smaller populations occur in Burundi and Rwanda. The total number of Central Chimpanzees was last estimated in 2003 at 70,000-116,500 individuals, most of them in Cameroon, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo. Population declines have likely occurred throughout the species’ range; these have yet to be quantified. Recent surveys found several thousand Chimpanzees in Equatorial Guinea, ¢.20,000 in Gabon, and ¢.25,000 in the Republic of the Congo. Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture, extractive industries (logging and mining), infrastructure development, and expanding human populations have been the major reasons for dramatic reductions in Chimpanzee numbers and distribution. Disease (Ebola) and poaching for the commercial bushmeat trade have decimated Central African populations, especially in north-eastern Gabon and western Republic of the Congo. Conservation organizations have programs throughout the species’ range and are working toward securing the Chimpanzee’s long-term survival.</p>
            <p>Bibliography. Boesch &amp; Boesch-Achermann (2000), Brncic et al. (2010), Butynski (2003), Conservation International &amp; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (unpublished data), Emery Thompson &amp; Wrangham (2013), Gilby et al. (2008), Goodall (1986), Gross-Camp et al. (2009), Groves (2001), Humle (2011), Jungers &amp; Susman (1984), Matsuzawa et al. (2011), Morbeck &amp; Zihiman (1989), Morgan et al. (2011), Normand &amp; Boesch (2009), Normand et al. (2009), Plumptre et al. (2010), Pusey et al. (2005), Ruffler &amp; Muray (2012), Sugiyama &amp; Fujita (2011), Tutin et al. (2005), Uehara &amp; Nishida (1987), Whiten et al. (1999), Zihiman et al. (2008).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA878540009F63FF35F750F5DBB688	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
03FA878540039F62FA8EF938F9B8B8C1.text	03FA878540039F62FA8EF938F9B8B8C1.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Pan paniscus Schwarz 1929	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p>6.</p>
            <p>Bonobo</p>
            <p> Pan paniscus</p>
            <p>French: Bonobo / German: Bonobo / Spanish: Bonobo</p>
            <p>Other common names: Dwarf Chimpanzee, Gracile Chimpanzee, Pygmy Chimpanzee</p>
            <p> Taxonomy.  Pan satyrus paniscus Schwarz, 1929 , </p>
            <p> DR Congo, 30 km south of Befale, south of upper Maringa River . </p>
            <p>This species is monotypic.</p>
            <p>Distribution. C DR Congo in the basin formed by the Congo River to the N and W, bounded by the Lualaba River in the E, and the Kasai/Sankuru rivers in the S; the Congo River forms a biogeographical barrier separating Bonobos from gorillas and Chimpanzees.</p>
            <p> Descriptive notes. Head-body 73-83 cm (males) and 70-76 cm (females); weight 36— 43 kg (males) and 26-36 kg (females). The  Bonobo is moderately sexually dimorphic. It is similar in size and appearance to Chimpanzees (PF.  troglodytes ) but limbs are more gracile and their appearance is more agile. Bonobos have a smaller head than Chimpanzees and shorter and very rounded skulls usually covered by long hair on the sides of the head. Face is black, lips are pink, and there are long whiskers on the cheeks. Adult Bonobos may retain a white pygal tail tuft (this is not visible beyond infancy in other African great apes). </p>
            <p>Habitat. Closed, moist, mixed, mature, secondary, seasonally inundated, and swamp forest. Populations of Bonobos in the western and southern parts of their range inhabit mosaics of swamp forest, dry forest, marshy grassland, and savanna woodland. The undulating terrain is mostly under 500 m elevation.</p>
            <p>Food and Feeding. More than 50% of the diet of the Bonobois fruit, supplemented with leaves, stems, shoots,pith, seeds, bark, flowers, truffles, fungus, and honey. At one site, 142 species are eaten. Measured in feeding time, the diet is 68% fruit; 29% leaves, pith and flowers; and 3% animal matter. Bonobos appear to depend more on terrestrial herbaceous vegetation, including aquatic plants, than do Chimpanzees. They forage in streams and marshy grasslands, and they wade waist-deep in water to gather stems and roots of aquatic vascular plants and algae. Animal prey include insect larvae, ants, termites, earthworms, small reptiles, birds, and medium-sized mammals such as duikers, dwarf galagos, and monkeys. They do not hunt frequently, and patterns of hunting vary among populations of Bonobos, from a single individual stalking on the ground to arboreal hunting by several group members. Both male and female Bonobos hunt and adult female Bonobos usually control meat-sharing. Recently, cannibalism has been observed. Sharing of both plant and animal food items among unrelated individuals is known. Unlike Chimpanzees, Bonobos rarely use tools in the acquisition of food.</p>
            <p>Breeding. Sexual behavior is an everyday event and sexual interactions occur between all age and sex classes. Testes and body size of male Bonobos increase at 8-9 years old, and it is thought that males reach sexual maturity by age ten. Female Bonobos start cycling at 9-12 years, followed by a period of adolescent infertility. They exhibit a striking pink genital swelling that is maximally tumescent around the time of ovulation. There is a high degree of variability in duration of swellings, offering options of concealment. Mating among community members appears to be promiscuous and opportunistic. Competition among male Bonobos for access to females does not usually take the form of overt aggression, nevertheless males exhibit a linear hierarchy that influences both mating and reproductive success with dominant males siring more offspring. Bonobos do not form consortships, instead dominant males establish amicable relationships with their mates. Females mate with many males. Females produce theirfirst offspring at 13-14 years of age, following a pregnancy of about eight months. In captivity, gestation averages 224-239 days. There is no birth season. Infants have a white pygaltail tuft and a black face from birth. Suckling and maternal care are maintained until the nextsibling is born. Interbirth intervals average 4-8 years at onesite, and eight years at another. Offspring share their mothers’ night nests until they are weaned. Infanticide by male Bonobos has not yet been observed; however, there are records of the kidnapping of infants by females with the subsequent death of the infant.</p>
            <p> Activity patterns. The  Bonobo is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. They spend 35-61% of their day foraging, 13-37% resting, and 15-25% travelling; 44% of their days are spent in trees and 56% on the ground. About 18% of foraging was in swamps or on the ground, searching for pith or leaves and sitting down to process a stem or shoot on average every 10 m. They travel rapidly when covering large distances between two food sources. Bonobos build new nests every night to sleep in, usually 15-30 m above the ground. Although construction of most nests takes only about four minutes, these night nests are often elaborate—a single nest may incorporate branches and foliage from several trees. Bonobos sometimes place loose leafy twigs on top of their bodies while lying in their nests, and sometimes they drape vegetation over their heads and shoulders as hats and umbrellas to provide protection against heavy rain. Bonobos also regularly construct less elaborate arboreal nests for resting during the day. They are highly selective in their choice of nesting tree species and nest sites and regularly reuse specific sites and locations. </p>
            <p>Movements, Home range and Social organization. Bonobos live in multimale-multifemale, fission-fusion communities of 10-120 members. They vary group size when foraging by splitting into smaller mixed-sex parties averaging 4-8-22-7 individuals. They travel 2-3 km/day, on average, occasionally 5-8 km/day. The annual home range of a community is 22-58 km?, and overlap between community ranges is 40-66%. Bonobos of both sexes occasionally make use of a ritual called “branch dragging” whereby they drag saplings noisily to initiate and coordinate group travel. Males and females roam together all year round. Females emigrate upon reaching sexual maturity, but males are generally philopatric, remaining in their natal group. Male Bonobos are tolerant and cooperative; aggressive behavior plays a minor role not only between sexes independent of reproductive status, but also between males in the acquisition of social status and thus determination of rank, as well as in intercommunity encounters. Independent of relatedness, strong and lasting bonds between adult male Bonobos are rare, while alliances among female Bonobos are common, strong and may last several years. Females form coalitions and support each other against males, with the result that females are considered co-dominant with males. Adult male Bonobos form friendly pair-relationships with unrelated adult females, and high-ranking males invest more in these relationships than do lower ranking individuals. Mother-son bonds are strongest, highly important for the social status of the son, and last far into adulthood. Grooming between Bonobos of the opposite sex is more frequent and prolonged than grooming between same-sex pairs. Individuals of all ages and both genders engage in sexual activity. Non-conceptive sex among Bonobos is thought to contribute to tension regulation and reconciliation and reflects acknowledgement ofstatus.</p>
            <p> Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Listed under Class A in the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Killing or capture of Bonobos for any purpose is against national and international laws, but law enforcement is generally weak. The total population size of the  Bonobo is uncertain because only 30% ofits historic range has been surveyed. Estimates from the four known  Bonobo strongholds, based around protected areas, suggest a minimum population of 15,000-20,000 individuals. Numbers are still dropping—one-third of the population at one site was lost between 2006 and 2010. Most habitat destruction is by slash-and-burn subsistence agriculture, which is most intense where human densities are high or growing. Industrial logging, mining, and agriculture do not yet occur on a large scale in the Bonobo’s habitat, but they are serious future threats. An underlying threat to Bonobois the volatile political situation in DR Congo, together with institutional, social, and economic decline in recent decades—all exacerbate the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources and result in the elimination of wildlife. By far the greatest threat to Bonobos is poaching for the commercial bushmeat trade. Bushmeat was consumed in 28% of households surveyed in 2008 in DR Congo's capital city, Kinshasa, which has a population of nine million people. It has been estimated that nine tons of bushmeat are extracted daily from a 50,000km* conservation landscape within the Bonobo’s habitat. In one region, a “closed season”is being imposed,as part of the effort to combat hunting of Bonobos. In some areas, local taboos against eating  Bonobo meatstill exist, while in others, these traditions are disintegrating due to changing cultural values and population movements caused by civil unrest. There is not only a massive demand for bushmeat in the cities, but also armed forces, both rebel factions and poorly paid government soldiers, add to that demand besides facilitating the flow of guns and ammunition. There are strong cultural attachments to bushmeat in DR Congo. A recent conservation prioritization process recognized that reducing  Bonobo mortality caused by poaching must be the highest priority for conservation action. Habitat loss through deforestation and fragmentation ranked second, although it was acknowledged that forests are often severely depleted of their wildlife before habitat destruction begins. Disease was also considered a potential future threat. Indirect threats to  Bonobo survival include weak law enforcement, commercial bushmeat trade, uncontrolled proliferation of weapons and ammunition, human population growth, expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture, insufficient subsistence alternatives, and large-scale commercial activities (industrial agriculture, logging, mining, petroleum drilling and exploration, and associated development of infrastructure). Many international and local conservation organizations are working with the government of DR Congo toward protection and long-term survival of Bonobos and to support the national park authority with its mission. New protected areas are planned and have been created primarily to safeguard this species, which is endemic to DR Congo. </p>
            <p>Bibliography. Coolidge &amp; Shea (1982), Drews et al. (2011), Fowler &amp; Hohmann (2010), Fruth (1995), Fruth et al. (1999), Gerloff et al. (1999), Groves (2001), Heistermann et al. (1996), Hohmann (2001), Hohmann &amp; Fruth (2008, 2011), Idani et al. (1994), IUCN &amp; ICCN (2012), Jungers &amp; Susman (1984), Morbeck &amp; Zihlman (1989), Reinartz et al. (2013), Surbeck, Deschner et al. (2012), Surbeck, Fowler et al. (2009), Surbeck, Mundry &amp; Hohmann (2010).</p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03FA878540039F62FA8EF938F9B8B8C1	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Russell A. Mittermeier;Anthony B. Rylands;Don E. Wilson	Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, Don E. Wilson (2013): Hominidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 3 Primates. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 792-854, ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6700973
