taxonID	type	description	language	source
03C42F370C60731FFF66CC53BD0FD9B8.taxon	description	Syntypes. MNHN 0000 - 6090, 0000 - 9207 (dried).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C60731FFF66CC53BD0FD9B8.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. New Zealand. Synonyms. H. bleekeri Fowler 1907, H. agnesae Fowler 1907, H. graciliformis McCulloch 1911. Subgenus synonym: Macleayina Fowler 1907.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C60731FFF66CC53BD0FD9B8.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (southeast), New Zealand. Notes. H. abdominalis was first described from New Zealand and there is a question as to whether specimens from Australia represent the same species. Studies that have addressed this question do not support the existence of multiple species based on morphological, meristic, and genetic data (357 bp, cyt b) and show more variation within populations than among populations (Appendix A; Armstrong 2001). There is some genetic divergence between Australian and New Zealand populations (814 bp cyt b, 624 bp CO 1, 404 bp CR, plus four microsatellite loci), however, the level of divergence (1.4 – 1.7 %, Nickel & Cursons 2012) is below our 2 % threshold adopted for this revision. Divergence within New Zealand is 0.7 – 2.2 % without any clear geographical structure (Nickel 2009; Nickel & Cursons 2012). The name H. abdominalis takes precedence with H. agnesae and H. bleekeri being treated as synonyms. Hippocampus graciliformis is a juvenile specimen of H. abdominalis and therefore is also synonymized.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C61731FFF66CC2AB850DE31.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. MNHN 0000 - 6084. Type locality. Algeria. Synonyms. H. punctulatus Kaup 1856, H. deanei Duméril 1861, H. kaupii Duméril 1870.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C61731FFF66CC2AB850DE31.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Angola, Benin, Cabinda, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Spain (Canary Islands), Togo, Western Sahara. Notes. The type specimen was sent from Algiers, Algeria by Guichenot who reported this species occurred, albeit ‘ very rarely’, in Béjaïa (formerly Bougie) (Guichenot 1850). No other specimens have been found from Algeria since this time, and we restrict the current distribution of H. algiricus to West Africa. H. algiricus is very closely related to the H. kuda - complex (Teske et al. 2005) and is only 1.3 % divergent from H. reidi (Silveira et al. 2014; Casey et al. 2004; Teske et al. 2004; BOLD 2016), but is here retained as a valid separate species due to the geographic distance between the West African and Brazilian coasts (see Discussion for further explanation). Further research is needed to determine the level of connectivity and gene exchange between the two populations. Synonymies were confirmed by examination of all type specimens (Lourie et al. 1999).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C62731DFF66CDF0BFF8D815.taxon	description	Syntypes. BMNH 1858.12.27.97 - 103 (7).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C62731DFF66CDF0BFF8D815.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Freycinet Harbour, Western Australia. Synonyms. H. grandiceps Kuiter 2001; H. hendriki Kuiter 2001; H. multispinus Kuiter 2001; H. erinaceus Günther 1870.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C62731DFF66CDF0BFF8D815.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (north and northwest). Notes. Differences of opinion exist as to the number of spiny, striped-snouted, reticulated brown-patterned seahorse species in northern Australia. Morphologically and meristically there is a lot of overlap among the specimens and there are no clear morphological distinctions (Appendix B). Based on our measurements of many of the same specimens that were used to describe H. grandiceps, H. hendriki, and H. multispinus (Kuiter 2001), we find inconsistencies between our counts, and our counts do not uphold the very slight modal differences among the putative species described in Kuiter (2001). Even these differences disappear when all the specimens measured by SL (including ones not measured in Kuiter 2001) are divided regionally, and we therefore treat them as a single, morphologically variable species with the name H. angustus. Eleven barcode sequences are available for specimens from this group (six of which are publicly available): one from Rockingham, south of Perth (identified as H. subelongatus), one from Shark Bay (identified as H. angustus), two from the northwest coast of Western Australia (identified as H. angustus), one from Misool, West Papua (identified as H. cf barbouri) and five from the Torres Strait (identified as H. hendriki and not publicly available). BOLD separates them into three BINs (Barcode Index Number groups): i) H. subelongatus and H. angustus (Shark Bay) (identical sequences), ii) two northwest H. angustus (maximum genetic distance within this group is 0.61 %) and iii) H. cf barbouri and H. hendriki (maximum genetic distance within this group is 0.92 %). The genetic distance among the groups is 1.28 – 1.44 %, which is below the 2 % threshold We have adopted for this revision. If further study suggests that spiny seahorses from Shark Bay (the type locality of H. angustus) are indeed the same as H. subelongatus, H. angustus has chronological priority. If the spiny northern seahorses turn out to be a single species, and distinct from H. angustus, but conspecific with H. erinaceus, the name H. erinaceus would have priority over new species names (those from Kuiter 2001). That said, although the meristic data of H. erinaceus match those of other northern spiny species, it is a much smaller specimen with a relatively short snout. If the northern seahorses turn out to be more than one species, H. erinaceus should be one of the names. See additional notes under H. subelongatus.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C63731DFF66CC59B8F5DE60.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. USNM 61683. Paratypes: CAS-SU 20205 (2). Type locality. Cuyo, Philippines. Synonyms. H. arnei Roule 1916 (in part) (and its misspellings H. aimei and H. airnei).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C63731DFF66CC59B8F5DE60.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Indonesia (Java, Sulawesi and Borneo), Malaysia (Sabah), Philippines. Notes. H. arnei is synonymized, in part, with H. barbouri on the basis of the original morphological description, illustrations, and photographs of the type specimens (Lourie et al. 1999). Note that the specimens of H. arnei are both female, and apparently of two different species, and are not male and female as Roule indicates. Genetic variation (648 bp, CO 1) within H. barbouri is approximately 1.1 % while the distance to the closest members of the H. angustus clade (from the Torres Strait) is approximately 6.1 % (BOLD 2016).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7C7302FF66CA9BBD3FDC60.taxon	description	Lectotype. AMS I. 15418 - 001. Paralectotypes: AMS I. 15418 - 002.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7C7302FF66CA9BBD3FDC60.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Nouméa, New Caledonia. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7C7302FF66CA9BBD3FDC60.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia, Indonesia, Japan (Izu, Ogasawara and Ryukyu Islands), Malaysia (Borneo), New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu. Notes. H. bargibanti exists in two different colour morphs: grey with pink tubercles, and yellow with orange tubercles.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7D7303FF66C9B8BD1DDCCA.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Adelaide, South Australia. Synonyms. H. tuberculatus Castelnau 1875.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7D7303FF66C9B8BD1DDCCA.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (south and west, Tasmania). Notes. Kuiter (2001) recognizes separate species to the west (H. tuberculatus) and east (H. breviceps) of the Great Australian Bight. Our data do not show the meristic differences that Kuiter cites in support of this separation (see Appendix C), and there are no genetic data yet available to shed light on the question. Further molecular work is needed to determine whether there exist sufficient differences between these two disjunct populations of H. breviceps to warrant the validity of H. tuberculatus as a distinct species. For now we accept the validity of a single species only.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7D7303FF66CCD5BD33DE3B.taxon	materials_examined	Type specimen. Unknown (but see BMNH 1920.12.6.2). Type locality. Mozambique. Synonyms. H. subcoronatus Günther 1866 (in Playfair & Günther 1866).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7D7303FF66CCD5BD33DE3B.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania. Notes. The name H. subcoronatus has barely been used except in Günther’s original description. We synonymize it with H. camelopardalis based on the description, illustration, and our examination of the type specimen.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7E7301FF66CD02B812D83A.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Knysna Harbour, South Africa. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7E7301FF66CD02B812D83A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. South Africa (Knysna, Keurbooms, and Swartvlei Estuaries). Notes. Meristics and genetic evidence (Teske et al. 2005, 2007 a; BOLD 2016) suggest that H. capensis is a member of the H. kuda complex. We conservatively retain its status as a distinct species based on the distinctive morphological and ecological characteristics it exhibits and the substantial threats facing these populations (Lockyear et al. 2006; Teske et al. 2007 b). The species is the only seahorse known to exclusively inhabit estuaries, and the populations within these estuaries all exhibit genetic differences that warrant them being treated as separate management units (Teske et al. 2003). See the Discussion for further explanation.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7F7301FF66C8B0BF6DDE7F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (Lord Howe Island). Notes. The original description of H. colemani was based only on the two type specimens (Kuiter 2003) and contained errors (corrected in Lourie & Kuiter 2008). Two additional specimens from Milne Bay, Papua New Guinea, are housed in the NMV and tentatively assigned to H. colemani. However, they are substantially smaller and have body proportions more similar to H. pontohi (Lourie & Kuiter 2008). Given the relative isolation of Lord Howe Island, the paucity of specimens available for comparisons, and their many shared features, it is possible that the specimens described as H. colemani represent a population of a more widespread species that was subsequently, erroneously, described as H. pontohi. If this were the case (genetic data would be helpful to resolve this question), H. colemani would be the species name retained based on the Principle of Priority (Article 23, International Code of Zoological Nomenclature).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7F7306FF66CE4ABF42D82D.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Penang, Malaysia. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7F7306FF66CE4ABF42D82D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. India (Andaman Islands), Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam. Notes. BOLD (2016) data suggest that H. comes is most closely related to H. angustus and H. subelongatus from Shark Bay, Western Australia, with a divergence of 2.73 %.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C787306FF66CDF8B875DFCD.taxon	description	Lectotype (designated by Boeseman (1947: 195 – 196 )): RMNH D 1543 (dry). Paralectotype: RMNH D 1541 - 42 (2, dry), D 1544 (1, dry).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C787306FF66CDF8B875DFCD.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Nagasaki, Japan. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C787306FF66CDF8B875DFCD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Japan, South Korea (southeast). Notes. Mukai et al. (2000) assessed the mtDNA 12 S rRNA divergence of specimens from Sagami Bay, Japan that they identified as H. coronatus. They concluded the samples represented two different taxonomic units, 4.4 – 4.6 % divergent from one another. It is possible that the samples were misidentified and may in fact be H. coronatus and H. sindonis (this is likely based on the photographs in the paper). The paper did not mention H. sindonis. Morphological examination of the seahorses from Sagami Bay is needed.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C797304FF66CD2FB8CBD8A0.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Moreton Bay, Noosa, southern Queensland, Australia. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C797304FF66CD2FB8CBD8A0.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Northern and Eastern Australia. Notes. Morphological data for the type specimen of H. dahli have been lost. Specimens from northeast Australia that are classified as H. dahli by Kuiter (2001) are meristically indistinguishable from H. trimaculatus from elsewhere in their range (Appendix D), although they apparently lack the three spots characteristic of H. trimaculatus (data for Lourie et al. 1999). Genetic data (648 bp, CO 1) from a single specimen identified as H. dahli (not publicly available) suggests a 4.86 % divergence between this specimen and others from India to Taiwan, Province of China, Indonesia and the Philippines (BOLD 2016). Further investigation is warranted.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7A7304FF66CB20B827DA2A.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. NMV A 29864 - 001. Type locality. Red Sea, Hurghada, Erg Camel, Egypt. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7A7304FF66CB20B827DA2A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Egypt (Red Sea). Notes. This species is clearly distinguishable from all other seahorses based on morphology and meristic data, but is known from very few specimens / observations. Further research is needed.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7A7305FF66CFCFBE16D995.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. MZB 10920. Paratypes: BPBM 38955 (3); MZB 10921; USNM 368872 - 73 (1, 3), 370526. Type locality. Banta Island, Indonesia (holotype, and one paratype); Palau (other paratypes). Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7A7305FF66CFCFBE16D995.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (northeast), Indonesia, Malaysia (Borneo), Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu. Notes. Some specimens of H. denise from West Papua are red with large white tubercles. It is unclear whether these represent a separate species as specimens have yet to be collected. Further research is needed to understand the range boundaries of this species.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7B730AFF66CDBDBD6AD871.taxon	description	Neotype. USNM 223087	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7B730AFF66CDBDBD6AD871.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. ‘ American seas, coasts of Mexico and West Indies’ (presumably Atlantic coasts). Neotype from Florida (Gulf of Mexico), USA. Synonyms. H. hudsonius DeKay 1842, H. punctulatus Guichenot 1853, H. marginalis Kaup 1856, H. fascicularis Kaup 1856, H. laevicaudatus Kaup 1856, H. villosus Günther 1880, H. stylifer Jordan and Gilbert 1882, H. brunneus Bean 1906, H. kincaidi Townsend and Barbour 1906, Syngnathus caballus Larranaga 1923.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C7B730AFF66CDBDBD6AD871.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Azores Islands (though possibly as a vagrant or of anthropogenic origin — see Woodall et al. 2009), Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Canada, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cura ç ao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, French Guiana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos, USA, US Virgin Islands, Venezuela. Notes. No type specimen is associated with the original description of H. erectus, and its type locality was not specific, but we here designate a neotype from the centre of its range. Vari (1982) revised the western Atlantic seahorses and made the synonymies, however the morphological variation, particularly in terms of spine development among some specimens, is relatively large. The Brazilian H. erectus forms a genetically distinct clade (648 bp, CO 1), separate from the Caribbean specimens, however the genetic distance between these clades (1.6 %, Silveira et al. 2014) is below the 2 % threshold employed in this revision. Boehm et al. (2015) indicate that H. erectus from the Gulf of Mexico to Long Island exist as three genetic subpopulations (based on 11,708 single nucleotide polymorphisms), although an earlier study based on 3840 bp (mtDNA cyt b, CO 1, CR) and five nuclear loci (aldolase, myh 6, rhodopsin, Tmo 4 c 4, S 7 intron) gave no evidence to support a distinction on either side of Cape Hatteras (Boehm et al. 2013). Boehm et al. (2015) have recently demonstrated that this species is resident as far north as Long Island. Many records of the species exist from over the Scotian shelf off the east coast of Canada — further research is needed to determine whether they are resident there or if they are vagrant drifters on the Gulf Stream.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C74730BFF66CD78B90FD8C1.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. USNM 50625. Paratypes: BPBM 1687, FMNH 3946, MCZ 168879 (never received), CAS-SU 7450, USNM 126534 [ex USBF 1058 / USFC 2700]. Type locality. Kailua, Hawaii (holotype); Hilo, Hawaii (paratypes).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C74730BFF66CD78B90FD8C1.taxon	distribution	Distribution. USA (Hawaii). Notes. Szabó et al. (2011) confirm the presence, and distinctness, of H. fisheri as a Hawaiian endemic using genetic and morphometric methods. It is> 5 % divergent from H. kuda (696 bp, cyt b) (Szabó et al. 2011). Specimens that were formerly tentatively assigned to H. fisheri from New Caledonia and Lord Howe Island (Lourie et al. 1999, 2004) have subsequently been described as H. jugumus and H. pusillus (Kuiter 2001; Fricke 2004).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C757308FF66C8D5BD24D808.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. guttulatus multiannularis Ginsburg 1937, H. hippocampus microcoronatus Slastenenko 1938, H. hippocampus microstephanus Slastenenko 1937, H. longirostris Schinz 1822. Neotype: MNHN-IC 2016 - 0023.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C757308FF66C8D5BD24D808.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Nice, France.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C757308FF66C8D5BD24D808.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Azores Islands, Bulgaria, Channel Islands, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Georgia, Greece, Isle of Man, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, Morocco, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, UK, Ukraine. Notes. The name H. ramulosus has frequently been used for the European Long-snouted Seahorse, but see Species Inquirenda below. Schinz (1822) proposed the name H. longirostris (~ long-snouted seahorse) for this species in opposition to his H. brevirostris (~ short-snouted seahorse). Hippocampus longirostris is given here in synonymy despite its earlier date (as in Lourie et al. 1999), following Ginsburg (1937) who called for its suppression and support of H. guttulatus ‘ in accordance with universal usage’. This has been challenged by Vasil’Eva (2007), however, we continue to support Ginsburg’s concept (see also notes under H. hippocampus). Hippocampus bicuspis is similar meristically (Appendix E, and different from the other known species from the region, H. algiricus), but it was found far outside the species’ typical range (in Senegal) and is here treated as a Species Inquirendum. Based on genetic data (991 bp cyt b and CR, and five microsatellites) there are four distinct subpopulations of H. guttulatus throughout Europe (Eastern Atlantic, Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea) (Woodall et al. 2015). The most common mtDNA haplotypes were found in all sampled locations, and the average genetic distance among populations was only 0.65 %, supporting the conclusion that this is still a single species even though there is likely no current gene flow between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. That said, even the Black Sea population is only 1.06 % different from the furthest population in the Bay of Biscay (Woodall et al. 2015).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C767309FF66C89DBD38D8E5.taxon	description	Synonyms. Gasterosteus equus Cabrera, Pérez, and Haenseler 1817, Syngnathus hippocampus Linnaeus 1758, H. heptagonus Rafinesque 1810, H. antiquorum Leach 1814, H. vulgaris Cloquet 1821, H. brevirostris Schinz 1822, H. antiquus Risso 1827, H. europaeus Ginsburg 1937; H. pentagonus Rafinesque 1810.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C767309FF66C89DBD38D8E5.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Algeria, Albania, Azores, Croatia, France, The Gambia, Greece, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, Netherlands, Portugal, Senegal, Slovenia, Spain (including the Canary Islands), Turkey, UK, Western Sahara. Neotype: BMNH 1872.2.6.3 (but see notes about Linnaeus’ specimens).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C767309FF66C89DBD38D8E5.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Spain / Portugal, eastern Atlantic. Notes. Linnaeus had two seahorses in his collection, one of which is the European Short-snouted Seahorse, the other is a distinctly spiny species of unknown identity (SL pers. obs., Maclaine 2015). Linnaeus himself made no distinction between different species of seahorse and gave them only a single name, Syngnathus hippocampus. This species name has been used extensively with the revised generic name for seahorses — Hippocampus) for the Short- Snouted Seahorse over the years, and is consistent with one of Linneaus’ specimens. Vasil’Eva (2007) however, suggests the use of H. hippocampus for the long-snouted European seahorse based on (some of) the meristic data in Linnaeus’ original descriptions. This action would be extremely disruptive to European seahorse nomenclature. We follow CF (Eschmeyer & Fricke 2016) and Maclaine (2015) in recommending that Vasil’Eva’s publication, its neotype designation, and its nomenclatural conclusions be suppressed. Hippocampus hippocampus consists of three distinct genetic units (921 bp cyt b and CR) in the English Channel / Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean / Atlantic Europe, and West Africa (Woodall et al. 2011). Hippocampus europaeus does not exhibit meristic or morphological characteristics that distinguish it (Appendix F). The average distance among the populations in the Mediterranean and Atlantic Europe is 0.89 %, while the average distance of the West African populations is 1.90 % from the above populations (Woodall et al. 2011), and these do tend to have distinctively large coronets (Lourie et al. 1999).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C777309FF66C8F9BF8EDDF7.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. curvicuspis Fricke 2004 (in part), H. hystrix Kaup 1856.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C777309FF66C8F9BF8EDDF7.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia, China (including Province of Taiwan), French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Reunion, Samoa, Seychelles, South Africa, South Korea, Tahiti, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, Viet Nam. Syntypes. MNHN A- 0906, RMNH 1537.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C777309FF66C8F9BF8EDDF7.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Japan. Notes. Five of the eleven specimens used by Fricke (2004) to describe H. curvicuspis were examined previously by the first author who did not find the cited morphological and meristic distinctions that purportedly separate these specimens from H. histrix (Lourie et al. 1999; Appendix G). In addition, one specimen (AMS IB. 4155) in the type series appeared to be a member of a different species (H. spinosissimus) (SL pers. obs.). The wide geographic range of H. histrix (from east Africa to Japan) warrants further investigation, as Song & Mabuchi (2014) suggest that the genetic distance between Indian and Pacific H. histrix is 6.6 – 6.7 % (CO 1) and this is also suggested by BOLD (2016) which indicates a 6.13 % distinction between specimens from Mozambique / India versus Viet Nam / Japan (648 bp CO 1). This high degree of divergence indicates the presence of at least one cryptic species across the range. There are no genetic data currently available for H. jayakari, which is morphologically very similar to but replaces H. histrix in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66C9B8BEB9DBEA.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. gracilis Gill 1862, H. ecuadorensis Fowler 1922, H. hildebrandi Ginsburg 1933.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66C9B8BEB9DBEA.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador (including the Malpelo, Cocos and Galapagos Islands), El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, USA (California). Lectotype: USNM 982. Paralectotypes: MCZ 35914 [ex USNM 982], UMMZ 118063, USNM 214485 [ex USNM 982] (2).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66C9B8BEB9DBEA.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. San Diego, USA. Notes. See Fritzsche (1980) for refutations of all three synonyms. Anecdotal reports exist of H. ingens individuals being seen by fishers as far north as Barkley Sound, British Columbia (W. Harstad, pers. comm. 2014; A. Vincent, pers. comm. 2014). Genetic studies indicate low overall diversity within this species relative to other seahorses based on mtDNA cyt b (587 bp, 0.8 % Tamura-Nei distance) and control region (340 bp, 1.2 % Tamura-Nei distance) and tRNA-pro and control region (428 bp, 0.39 % nucleotide diversity (q P) sequences (Sanders et al. 2008; Saarman et al. 2010).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66CF78B8C3DE0E.taxon	description	Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66CF78B8C3DE0E.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. BMNH 1900.5.23.1. Type locality. Muscat, Oman.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C70730EFF66CF78B8C3DE0E.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Israel (Red Sea), Oman, Pakistan. Notes. This species may be closely related to H. histrix. No genetic data are currently available.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C71730FFF66CA8AB92FDC24.taxon	description	Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C71730FFF66CA8AB92FDC24.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. AMS IA. 2424. Type locality. Lord Howe Island, Australia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C71730FFF66CA8AB92FDC24.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (Lord Howe Island). Notes. This species was described on the basis of a single specimen, however since then a second specimen has been collected from Lord Howe Island (from the gut of a kingfish Seriola lalandi Valenciennes 1833), and is now deposited at the Australian Museum in Sydney. Hippocampus jugumus looks superficially similar to the species described as H. pusillus and H. fisheri, however the meristics do not agree (Lourie et al. 1999; Kuiter 2001; Fricke 2004). Additional research is required to determine the relationships among these three species.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C72730CFF66C9B8BCE6DBEF.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. CAS-SU 6521. Type locality. Kagoshima, Japan. Synonyms. H. suezensis Duncker 1940.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C72730CFF66C9B8BCE6DBEF.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (northeast), China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan), Egypt, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Tanzania, Viet Nam. Notes. Jawad et al. (2011) conclude there are morphological differences between H. kelloggi and specimens from Oman (potentially H. suezensis), however the crucial table containing distinguishing characteristics is missing from that paper and could thus not be Evaluated for this current revision. The specimens that we have examined do not show meristic differences (Appendix H). One of the paratype specimens identified as H. alatus appears to be a specimen of H. kelloggi (Appendix N), as are several specimens identified by Kuiter (2001) as H. tristis.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C727332FF66CCE6BE82DB51.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. aterrimus Jordan and Snyder 1902, H. borboniensis Duméril 1870, H. chinensis Basilewsky 1855, H. fuscus Rüppell 1838, H. hilonis Jordan and Evermann 1903, H. horai Duncker 1926, H. melanospilos Bleeker 1854, H. moluccensis Bleeker 1852, H. novaehebudorum Fowler 1944, H. polytaenia Bleeker 1854, H. raji Whitley 1955 (= H. kuda multiannularis Raj 1941), H. rhynchomacer Duméril 1870, H. taeniops Fowler 1904, H. taeniopterus Bleeker 1852, H. tristis Castelnau 1872 Syntypes. (2) RMNH 5167 (1 of several), BMNH 1867.11.28.360 (see also Bleeker specimens: NMV 46227 - 28 (2 )).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C727332FF66CCE6BE82DB51.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Singapore	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C727332FF66CCE6BE82DB51.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (northern), Bahrain, Cambodia, China (including Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan), Comoros, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Fiji, France (Réunion), India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Federated States of Micronesia, New Caledonia, Oman, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa (eastern), Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tanzania, Thailand, Tonga, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, USA (Hawaii), Viet Nam. Notes. Hippocampus kuda is a very widespread species (or species-complex) that exhibits localized haplotypes, phylogeographic structuring (Lourie 2004; Teske et al. 2005), and variable morphology. BOLD (2016) separates the 54 sequenced specimens into four BINS (Barcorde Identification Numbers) although they only differ from one another by 1.28 – 2.25 % (648 bp, CO 1), and two of the three BINS with more than a single specimen contain members of more than one purported species. Furthermore, overlapping meristics, paraphyly among purported species, genotypes from different clades (BINS) in the same populations, and lack of diagnostic morphological differences mean that, pending further research, we are unable to uphold purported species as valid in this revision. The global ‘ H. kuda - clade’ includes H. kuda, H. fuscus, H. borboniensis, H. capensis, H. algiricus, and H. reidi (Casey et al. 2004; Silveira et al. 2014; Teske et al. 2005; BOLD 2016). We have here synonymized H. fuscus and H. borboniensis due to a lack of distinguishable morphological, genetic, or geographic differences from H. kuda proper (from Southeast Asia). Note that this implies that H. kuda is in fact a Lessepsian migrant, meaning that it has passed through the Suez Canal and into the Mediterranean Sea (Golani & Fine 2002). We retain H. reidi and H. algiricus based on their subtly distinctive coronets, longer snouts, but mostly their large geographic separation (see Discussion). Further studies are needed to determine whether gene flow occurs across the Atlantic, as these two species appear to be very close genetically (1.3 % divergence in 1141 bp, cytb, according to Casey et al. 2004 and 1.6 % divergence in 652 bp, CO 1, according to Silveira et al. 2014). We also conservatively retain H. capensis based on its distinctive coronet, noticeably and consistently smaller size, ecological considerations (it appears to be one of the most brackish-water tolerant seahorses and has only been found in estuaries — Lockyear et al. 2006), and conservation status (it is the only seahorse listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List — Czembor & Bell 2012). Comparisons of cyt b sequences of present-day specimens identified as H. kuda from Hawaii with the type specimen of H. hilonis revealed the same unique haplotype and led the authors to classify them as a subspecies H. kuda hilonis (Szabó et al. 2011). That said, the Hawaiian haplotype differs from Taiwanese and Philippines haplotypes by only one and two bases, respectively. Thus we do not support the acceptance of subspecific classification. The synonymization of H. melanospilos and H. taeniopterus with H. kuda was likely Bleeker’s own (according to manuscript notes to complete Bleeker’s Atlas of Ichthyology by Popta 1895). Lourie et al. (1999) followed Popta’s synonymy and we do here as well. According to Kuiter (2009), the type specimens of H. moluccensis are housed at the Museum of Victoria, although this identification is tentative. Kuiter further identifies them as a spiny species, however after examination of a photograph of one of the specimens we conclude that it is not spiny and more strongly conforms to H. kuda (SL pers. obs.). The type description of H. moluccensis also repeatedly mentions ‘ low tubercles’ and nothing about spines. The original description of H. tristis only mentions a single specimen (Castelnau 1872), however there are two type specimens in MNHN. Castelnau’s paper chiefly deals with fish from the Melbourne fish market and he gives no indication as to the origin of the specimens. The specimen labels however, suggest they are from ‘ Swan River, Australia’. Both Melbourne and Swan River are outside the range of H. kuda and it is possible that the specimens came from elsewhere. Morphologically they conform to H. kuda. Other names that we synonymise, based on our examination of the type material, morphologically conform to H. kuda (e. g. H. aterrimus, H. novaehebudorum, H. polytaenia — see also notes under H. spinosissimus, H. rhynchomacer, H. taeniops) (Appendix I). Remaining names lack type specimens, or we were unable to examine the types, and are synonymised based on the original morphological descriptions (e. g. H. chinensis, H. horai, H. raji and H. taeniopterus).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7332FF66CBA0B852DACE.taxon	description	Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7332FF66CBA0B852DACE.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (southeast).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7332FF66CBA0B852DACE.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. NMV A 192. Paratypes: AMS IA. 3509, IA. 3560, NMV A 14161. Type locality. Eden, Australia (holotype), New South Wales and Bass Strait, Australia (paratypes). Notes. Hippocampus minotaur is known only from four specimens (Gomon 1997).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7333FF66CFC4BDD1DD01.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. japonicus Kaup 1856.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7333FF66CFC4BDD1DD01.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Cambodia, China (including Province of Taiwan), India (eastern), Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore and Viet Nam (see Aylesworth et al. 2016).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4C7333FF66CFC4BDD1DD01.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. RMNH 7259. Type locality. Kaminoseki Island, Japan. Notes. Both H. mohnikei and H. japonicus were described from Japan and examination of their type specimens shows them to be the same species (Appendix J). Specimens from elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific morphologically conform to H. mohnikei, and differ genetically (e. g. Japanese and Vietnamese specimens differ by an average of 2.25 % — 648 bp, CO 1, BOLD 2016), indicating that there is the possibility of cryptic species within what we know as H. mohnikei. Zhang et al. (2014) found an overall nucleotide diversity of 0.35 % between the two populations sampled from northern China (780 bp, cyt b).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4D7330FF66CD90BCDAD853.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. SAMA F 10490. Type locality. SW of Esperance, Australia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4D7330FF66CD90BCDAD853.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (southwest). Notes. This species is known only from the holotype. It is closely related to H. minotaur (Foster & Gomon 2010).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7330FF66C8ABBCCBDA6F.taxon	description	Synonyms. None	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7330FF66C8ABBCCBDA6F.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Argentina, Brazil (south), Uruguay.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7330FF66C8ABBCCBDA6F.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. MACN 8806. Paratypes: MACN 8807, 8808, 8809. Type locality. Río Negro, San Antonio Oueste, Bahía, Argentina. Notes. Molecular research amply supports the diagnosis of H. patagonicus as a species separate from H. erectus (Casey et al. 2004; González et al. 2014; Silveira et al. 2014). It is 6.13 % divergent from Brazilian H. erectus (648 bp, CO 1, BOLD 2016) which in turn is 1.29 % divergent from North American and Caribbean H. erectus.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7331FF66CF4FBD3ED995.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. biocellatus Kuiter 2001.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7331FF66CF4FBD3ED995.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (Shark Bay and Exmouth Gulf).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4E7331FF66CF4FBD3ED995.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. ZMB 9387. Type locality. Naturalist’s Channel, Australia. Notes. The type specimen of H. planifrons is bleached and eye spots cannot be discerned. The limited number of specimens examined by Kuiter (2001) for descriptions of H. biocellatus (6) and H. planifrons (4) did not display distinguishing characteristics when re-examined by SL (see Appendix K), aside from H. biocellatus having a deeper body (potentially confounded by ontogeny and sex differences among the specimens examined) and spot markings that are split (that again may reflect ontogenetic differences) and cannot be seen on the type specimen of H. planifrons. The name H. planifrons has chronological precedence, thus subsuming H. biocellatus as a junior synonym.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4F7336FF66CD16BFC7D813.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Indonesia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, USA (Northern Mariana Islands). Holtoype: MZB 13593. Paratypes: MZB 13596, 13597.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4F7336FF66CD16BFC7D813.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Bunaken, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Notes. H. severnsi is considered a synonym based on the fact that its original description (Lourie & Kuiter 2008) does not include distinct morphological characters (colour only) (Appendix L). Recent genetic analyses confirm this synonymy (H. Hamilton, in litt. to SL and RP, 13 Feb 2015).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C487336FF66C8E6BFE0DA48.taxon	description	Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C487336FF66C8E6BFE0DA48.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. MNHN 2004 - 2029. Paratypes: MNHN 2002 - 3234, SMNS 23384. Type locality. Loyalty Islands (holotype), Loyalty Islands and Province Nord, Grand Terre, New Caledonia (paratypes).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C487336FF66C8E6BFE0DA48.taxon	distribution	Distribution. France (New Caledonia). Notes. This species is known only from the holotype and two paratypes. It very closely resembles H. jugumus although the meristic data do not agree. Further investigation is warranted.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C487337FF66CFAEBE8ADCAD.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Cuba, French Guiana, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, St. Lucia, Suriname, Turks and Caicos Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, USA (North Carolina to Texas), Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US and UK).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C487337FF66CFAEBE8ADCAD.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. USNM 86590. Paratypes: USNM 223673. Type locality. Grenada, West Indies. Notes. Both H. obtusus and H. poeyi are juvenile specimens that conform to H. reidi meristically and morphologically, and are hence synonymised. Hippocampus reidi is thought to be part of the H. kuda complex (Teske et al. 2005), and is very closely related to H. algiricus (Casey et al. 2004; Silveira et al. 2014). Indeed the Barcode of Life places them both in the same BIN group, with an average within-group divergence of 1.28 % (BOLD 2016). Research is needed to determine whether gene flow across the Atlantic Ocean takes place between H. reidi and H. algiricus, but we retain them both as valid species here due to the large geographic distance and entire ocean basin between the two populations.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C497337FF66CF24B9B7DEE6.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. waleananus Gomon and Kuiter 2009.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C497337FF66CF24B9B7DEE6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C497337FF66CF24B9B7DEE6.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. NMV A 25420 - 001. Paratype: NMV A 25420 - 002. Type locality. Derawan Island, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Notes. Hippocampus waleananus was described based on a single specimen. Differences cited included tail rings (32 vs. 27 – 28 for H. satomiae) and dorsal fin rays (12 versus 13 - 14), however a lack of other differences, and its apparent distribution entirely encompassed within the distribution of H. satomiae, lead us to synonymize it under H. satomiae (Appendix M). Further surveys and molecular studies in the region are needed to confirm this.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4A7335FF66CAFDB9AED856.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. USNM 47930. Type locality. Totomi Bay, off Hamamatsu, Japan.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4A7335FF66CAFDB9AED856.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Japan. Notes. Genetic data (714 bp, 12 S rRNA) from specimens identified by Mukai et al. (2000) as H. coronatus from Sagami Bay, Japan, separated into two distinct clades that differed by 4.4 – 4.6 %. Photographs from that same paper, however, appear to be H. sindonis and H. coronatus, which would explain the observed genetic divergence.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4B733AFF66C8A3B972D8E5.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. alatus Kuiter 2001, H. arnei Roule 1916 (in part), H. curvicuspis Fricke 2004 (in part), H. queenslandicus Horne 2001, H. semispinosus Kuiter 2001. Syntypes. ZMA 104.665 (2).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4B733AFF66C8A3B972D8E5.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Sapeh Strait, Indonesia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C4B733AFF66C8A3B972D8E5.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (north), Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Province of China, Thailand, Viet Nam. Notes. The type specimens of H. spinosissimus are surprisingly small, yet they are males with fully developed pouches. They also have clear nose spines, double cheek spines, and all body spines are approximately equally developed. A third specimen labelled as ‘ type’ (ZMA 114.473) had single cheek spines. Lourie et al. (1999) used this name to refer to spiny seahorses from across Southeast Asia, even though the latter frequently lacked a nose spine. No genetic data are available from the type specimens. Morphological and genetic data do not support the distinctness of H. queenslandicus nor H. semispinosus from what is understood as H. spinosissimus by Lourie et al. (1999) (Teske et al. 2007 c; BOLD 2016; Appendix N; see also Zhang et al. 2014). Admittedly there exists variation in spine development and colour pattern among H. spinosissimus specimens and genetic data indicate that haplotype diversity is high, with three major lineages, two of which are broadly sympatric and one that is restricted to the central Philippines (Lourie et al. 2005). However, the genetic divergence among specimens of H. spinosissimus examined from Australia, Malaysia and the Philippines is only 0.82 % (648 bp, CO 1) (BOLD 2016), and the average cytochrome b sequence divergence among 172 specimens from 29 populations is only 1.3 % (Lourie et al. 2005). At present we suggest that the variation represents polymorphism within a single species, rather than different species, however further investigation is warranted. Kuiter (2009) and Allen & Erdmann (2012) identify spiny Southeast Asian seahorses variously as H. arnei (see comments under H. barbouri), H. alatus, H. moluccensis (see comments under H. kuda), and H. polytaenia. The illustration of H. polytaenia (Bleeker, 1983) does show markings and moderately developed spines that are reminiscent of H. spinosissimus, however the type specimens conform to H. kuda (SL pers. obs.). Hippocampus alatus is tentatively synonymised here on the basis of morphological similarity, pending further work (especially genetics) (see Appendix N).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C44733AFF66C8F3BE1EDE13.taxon	description	Paratypes: MNHN A- 4535, MNHN A- 4536, MNHN A- 4552 (according to Kuiter 2001) MNHN A- 4535 is probably the holotype of H. subelongatus, and A- 4536 is probably the holotype of H. elongatus).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C44733AFF66C8F3BE1EDE13.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Swan River, Western Australia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C44733AFF66C8F3BE1EDE13.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (southwest). Notes. Meristic data largely overlap between H. subelongatus and H. angustus (Appendix B). Genetic divergence between H. subelongatus from Rockingham and H. angustus from Cape Bossut is 1.99 % (652 bp, CO 1) (Harasti 2014), which is just about at the cut-off that we set for species distinctions for this revision. However the same specimen from Rockingham had an identical haplotype to a specimen of H. angustus from Denham, Shark Bay (BOLD 2016). Further investigation is warranted. In the meantime we continue to recognize H. subelongatus as a species separate from H. angustus. In support of this decision, H. subelongatus specimens do have distinctive, very tall and rounded coronets, and are not at all spiny, unlike their northern congeners that are distinctly spiny.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C45733BFF66C9B8B944DECF.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. kampylotrachelos Bleeker 1854, H. manadensis Bleeker 1856, H. mannulus Cantor 1849, H. takakurae Tanaka 1916. Syntypes. BMNH 1982.6.17.42, BMNH 1982.6.17.43 (designated here as lectotype), BMNH 1982.6.17.44 - 45 (2), BMNH 1982.6.17.46 - 47 (2).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C45733BFF66C9B8B944DECF.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. China Seas.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C45733BFF66C9B8B944DECF.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Cambodia, China (Hong Kong SAR and Province of Taiwan), France (Tahiti), India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam. Notes. The syntype series labeled as H. trimaculatus is actually a mixture of species: BMNH 1982.6.17.42 is H. barbouri (larger specimen) and H. mohnikei (smaller specimen); BMNH 1982.6.17.43 is H. trimaculatus, and is hereby designated as a lectotype; BMNH 1982.6.17. 44 – 45 are H. trimaculatus; BMNH 1982.6.17.46 – 47 are H. spinosissimus. The type specimen of H. kampylotrachelos matches H. trimaculatus morphologically and meristically, as does the single specimen, which is in poor condition and was found among nesting birds that Kuiter (2001) used to resurrect the species name. Both H. mannulus and H. manadensis are considered synonyms based on their type descriptions, and for H. manadensis examination of the holotype. Genetic data suggest there is a deep division between H. trimaculatus specimens from west and east of Wallace’s Line (2.9 %, K 2 P distance, 696 bp cyt b, Lourie & Vincent 2004 a; 1.93 %, 648 bp, CO 1, BOLD 2016). There is some morphological evidence (slight difference in modal counts of tail rings and pectoral fin rays) to support this division as well (Appendix D). However, the difference is only retained for pectoral fin rays when Australian specimens are included and may not represent species distinctions. That said, we are currently treating Australian specimens in this group as a separate species, H. dahli (see above). Further research is needed to understand exactly where the changeover occurs and if there is a zone of overlap. Some specimens of H. trimaculatus have a zebra-striped pattern. Morphology, meristics and genetics identify these specimens as an unusual colour-morph of H. trimaculatus and not a separate species.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C467338FF66C9B8B972D8C6.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. BPBM 35555. Type locality. Poivre Atoll, Seychelles. Synonyms. None.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C467338FF66C9B8B972D8C6.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Seychelles. Notes. This species is only known from a single specimen collected from a deep-water dredge in 1992.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C467338FF66CDD7BE30DF1D.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. novaehollandiae Steindacher 1866; H. procerus Kuiter 2001. Neotype: I. 40831 - 018.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C467338FF66CDD7BE30DF1D.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C467338FF66CDD7BE30DF1D.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia (east), Solomon Islands. Notes. Meristic and morphological data do not separate purported H. procerus from H. whitei (Appendix O), nor do genetics. Four specimens from Moreton Bay (the type locality for H. procerus) included three haplotypes, each of which was identical to a haplotype from Sydney Harbour (type locality for H. whitei) (H. Hamilton, in litt. to SL and RP, 13 Feb 2015).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C47733EFF66CD37B820D8E5.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. montebelloensis Kuiter 2001	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C47733EFF66CD37B820D8E5.taxon	materials_examined	Holotype. AMS IB. 6015. Paratype: AMS IB. 2819. Type locality. Gillett Cay, Swain Reefs, Queensland, Australia.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C47733EFF66CD37B820D8E5.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Australia. Notes. Some specimens of H. trimaculatus have zebra-stripes, however these can be separated from H. zebra on the basis of meristic counts (Appendix D) and their less distinct coronet (Lourie et al. 2004). Note that the paratype of H. zebra is one such misidentification. Specimens from the west coast of Australia described as H. montebelloensis by Kuiter (2001) have identical meristic data, and underwater photographs show distinct zebrastriped specimens supporting synonymization. No genetic data are yet available.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C40733EFF66C8FEBEBFDA1A.taxon	description	Synonyms. H. rosamondae Borodin 1928, H. regulus Ginsburg 1933. Syntypes. MNHN 1887 - 0515, CAS-SU 1671 (2), USNM 30852 (2 or 1, not found in 1980).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C40733EFF66C8FEBEBFDA1A.taxon	materials_examined	Type locality. Laguna Grande, Pensacola, Florida.	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
03C42F370C40733EFF66C8FEBEBFDA1A.taxon	distribution	Distribution. Bahamas, Mexico, USA (Gulf of Mexico). Notes. The type specimen of H. lichtensteinii is thought to possibly be H. zosterae and to have been mistakenly labelled as being from the Red Sea (Kaup 1856 — See Appendix P and Species Inquirenda below). Although populations throughout the Floridian portion of the species’ range exhibit gene flow, mtDNA evidence (1,450 bp, ND 4, D-loop, CO 1) suggests four distinct subpopulations (overall F ST = 0.47, average nucleotide diversity within populations = 0.49 %) (Fedrizzi et al. 2015).	en	Sara A. Lourie, Riley A. Pollom, Sarah J. Foster (2016): A global revision of the Seahorses Hippocampus Rafinesque 1810 (Actinopterygii: Syngnathiformes): Taxonomy and biogeography with recommendations for further research. Zootaxa 4146 (1): 1-66, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4146.1.1
