Mutarda arvensis (L.) D. A. German, 2022

Mutarda arvensis (L.) D. A. German, 2022 View in CoL

Mutarda arvensis (L.) D. A. German, Turczaninowia 25 (2): 56 (2022) View in CoL — Rhamphospermum arvense (L.) Andrz. ex Besser View in CoL , Enum. Pl.: 83 (1822) — Sinapis arvensis L. View in CoL , Sp. Pl. 2: 668 (1753).

Distribution

Native distribution

From the species ecology and details of its distribution, we infer that the native distribution area of Mutarda arvensis is the Mediterranean. Its eastern distribution limit is uncertain, but apparently does not include Turkmenistan, in which the species is considered exclusively alien and originally occurring as a segetal weed in irrigated places of lowlands and foothills ( Nikitin and Geldykhanov 1988).

Secondary distribution

Europe, temperate Asia, temperate Africa, temperate North and South America, non-desert Australia. It is found northwards as far as Iceland and the Faroes in the Arctic ( Fogg 1950, Wasowicz et al. 2019). Common in North America ( Rollins 1981).

The species is a common weed of many crops ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934) since the early periods of agriculture ( Fogg 1950) and was recorded on traditional fields of bread crops and flax in Afghanistan ( Vavilov and Bukinich 1929). Its high level of seed production and a good adaptation to arable lands brings its distribution to the limits of argicultural zone; its highest abundace is recorded in lowlands and on chernozem soils ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934), but the occurrence extends to the higher elevations with the cultivation of cereals ( Fogg 1950). Its typical pathway of introduction is infestation of crop seeds and argicultural commodities ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934, Suominen 1979), making it commonly occurring also in waste and ruderal lands and along roadsides in populated places. This pathway is still active, although apparently decreasing because of the modern purification of grain crops ( Vainorienė and Gudžinskas 2009). Due to its enormous seed deposit, the species commonly occurs on fallow fields, but disappears when the fields are turned into pastures ( Chippindale and Milton 1934).

Distribution in Central Asia

The species occurs as a common alien plant in all the countries of Central Asia ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934, Kovalevskaya 1974). It occurs largely in agricultural areas, in the steppe zone in Kazakhstan and on irrigated lands in the mountains, largely avoiding deserts (Fig. 16 View Figure 16 ) due to its rather high demand for water supply ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934).

The spread of Mutarda arvensis to Central Asia has occurred in several major waves from different directions.

Fedtschenko (1902), when visited Samarqand immediately after the Russian conquest, collected the species around the city in 1869. In Uzbekistan, as well as elsewhere in the mountainous Central Asia, the species is an archaeophyte that had arrived with the introduction of agriculture in the Neolithic period and its population in the southern Central Asia was apparently self-sustainable in agricultural lands for a long time. During the Imperial and Soviet times, the development of extensive agricultural regions, which were largely specialised on cotton and grain production, resulted in the abundant occurrence of Mutarda arvensis in southern Uzbekistan, south-western Tajikistan, Fergana Depression and northern Kyrgyzstan (Fig. 16 View Figure 16 ).

Northern Kazakhstan, embracing the steppe areas of Central Asia, was a nomadic region, into which the species has arrived with the agriculture introduced by Russian settlers. Slovtsov (1897), who travelled across Akmolinsk steppes (present-day Kökşetau District, Astana Region, Kazakhstan) in 1878, observed that permanent settlements with agricultural activities were few and belonged to Russian Cossacks who served as frontier guards along the Siberian frontier and in its foreposts since the second half of the 18 th century; two early herbarium collections of the species from Kazakhstan (dated 1834 and 1878) originated from the Cossack settlements. In 20 years after this observation, northern Kazakhstan has been settled by many tens of thousands of Russian peasants, who established numerous villages and extended the cultivated lands, thus producing the second wave of the species invasion ( Katanaev 1897). The third wave originated from the machinery-supported expansion of agriculture into the Asian part of the USSR ( Katkoff 1950, Durgin 1962), which appeared in periods of the intensive ploughing up of previously uncultivated lands in Siberia and northern Kazakhstan in 1928-1940 and culminated with the Virgin Lands campaign of 1954-1963.

According to herbarium collections, in Central Asia, the species was found in connection with all kind of fields: wheat, barley, oat, flax, alfalfa, cotton, vegetable, beetroot. It was also found on city lawns and among ornamental plants.

The ruderal occurrence of Mutarda arvensis in contemporary populated places of Central Asia is complementary to the other factors. Its origin comes partly from grain contamination, partly from the infestation of ornamental cultivation or greenery.

The major floristic sources reported that the species is commonly found in Central Asia as a field weed, on fallow fields, as a ruderal plant in populated places and along roadsides ( Botschantzev and Vvedensky 1955, Nikitina 1955, Vasilieva 1961, Kovalevskaya 1974, Yunusov 1978). This information reflects its major role as a segetal weed and does not provide for its naturalisation in native habitats. According to more recent observations, Mutarda arvensis has been repeatedly found as dispersed outside fields and ruderal places to the neighbouring riversides and ravines. These observations show the species capacity to establish in natural habitats, although to a limited extent.

Distribution in Kyrgyzstan

The species was found in all agricultural regions of the country ( Nikitina 1955), but its current documentation is apparently deficient (Fig. 17 View Figure 17 ).

According to the current record, Mutarda arvensis was primarily collected from argicultural lands (Fig. 18 View Figure 18 ) in northern and eastern Kyrgyzstan. It was observed in fields at elevations from 750 to 2150 m a. s. l., with the common presence in the high-elevated Northern and Eastern Tian-Shan, contrary to the statement of Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko (1934) that the species prefers elevations below 1000 m a. s. l.

Its major presence in the country is registered on agricultural lands and ruderal places, including roadsides. The species was also not uncommonly found in natural, though usually disturbed habitats, like gravelly riversides, clayey deserts and meadows. The most remarkable case of its dispersal was observed in the western spurs of the Kök-Shaal Range, Eastern Tian-Shan, close to the Chinese border, where the species was found in 1939 in an uninhabited ravine at an elevation of ca. 2900 m a. s. l. This occurrence demonstrates its potential dispersal to the remote wilderness with horse fodder, mostly composed of grain, which has been commonly taken by shepherds and mounted guards to the mountains and deserts.

Besides the extensive weedy distribution, Mutarda arvensis has been cultivated for oil seed ( Nikitina 1955). Its cultivation remains popular to date and accounts for a part of the alien occurrence, when the plants persist as ruderal or weedy leftovers of the former cultivation.

Ecology

The species strongly prefers open habitats on clayey and calcareous substrates ( Fogg 1950). It survives droughts on cultivated land, but avoids naturally arid habitats.

Biology

Annual or winter annual with a slender taproot.

Cross- and self-pollination are combined to ensure stable seed set ( Fogg 1950). The species has a high demand for water supply and may outcompete the crops for nutrients and water, thus reducing the yield severely or, in the worst cases, even completely ( Zargar et al. 2021). Under favourable conditions, it may also outcompete other weeds (e. g. Alex (1970)). Seeds may remain viable when buried in soil and the plants re-appear when ploughing is resumed after at least 11 years ( Chippindale and Milton 1934).

Notes

The species shows a high variability in some conspicuous morphological characters ( Yarmolenko and Vasilczenko 1934). Its leaves may be entire, lyrate or lyrately dissected. Pods may be glabrous ( Mutarda arvensis var. arvensis ) or hairy ( Mutarda arvensis var. orientalis (L.) Sennikov, comb. nov. Basionym: Sinapis orientalis L., Cent. Pl. I: 19 (1755); Fig. 19 View Figure 19 ). This variability is largely infrapopulational and has no apparent geographical pattern.

Introduction to Kyrgyzstan

Period of introduction

Archaeophyte.

From the archaeophyte status of the species in Central Asia, we infer its first appearance in the territory of Kyrgyzstan in pre-historic times, through the agriculture in the Ferghana Depression.

Pathways of introduction

Transport - Contaminant: Seed contaminant. Escape from confinement: Agriculture.

Mutarda arvensis is a common contaminant of grain, fodder and ornamental seed and its primary alien occurrence originated from cultivated lands. Crop trade and accompanying losses in transportation and discharge places account for the ruderal occurrence of the species.

The species cultivation for oil seed contributes to its alien occurrence.

The secondary dispersal is limited and occurs primarily by winds and water currents along rivers.

Source of introduction

Iran, with the development of the Neolithic agriculture. Eastern Europe, with modern crop cultivation. Other sources are possible with imported grain.

Invasion status

Naturalised, not invasive. The species persists for uncertain time around the places of original introduction, intruding into neighbouring natural habitats, although its continuous presence in the territory may largely rely on the constant arrival of new diaspores through contaminated seed (like in the case of Xanthium strumarium : Sennikov and Lazkov (2021)).

Evidence of impact

Agriculture - major impact (noxious weed of all crops, in fields and gardens). Native ecosystems - moderate impact (occurring along streams and roadsides near populated places). Urban areas - moderate impact (ruderal occurrence).

Trend

Stable (observed).